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The
organization
of
the
report.................................................................7
References
...................................................................................................9
Chapter 1
1 This report is intended to update policy makers,
educators,
and
the
general
public
on
the
status
of
students
and
the
system
that
serves
them.
It
uses
selected
indicators
of
the
system
to
provide
a
look
at
how
science
and
mathematics
education
has
changed
in
the
past
few
years
and
how
it
is
changing
today.
Furthermore,
the
report
uses
a
number
of
indicators
that
represent
important
elements
of
the
efforts
of
systemic
reform
of
mathematics
and
science
education.
The
data
and
findings
presented
here
about
science
and
mathematics
education
are
extracted
from
existing
studies
and
surveys
of
education.
In
some
cases,
chapter
authors
have
conducted
secondary
analyses
of
these
existing
data,
but
no
new
information
has
been
collected
from
schools,
students,
or
teachers
specifically
for
purposes
of
writing
this
report.
The
report
highlights
information
regarding
relationships
between
changes
in
student
achievement
and
changes
in
classroom
conditions.
Although
the
picture
that
emerges
is
detailed,
it
is
far
from
complete
because
survey
data
for
many
important
topics
of
concern
to
science
and
mathematics
educators
are
not
available.
Therefore,
a
secondary
purpose
of
this
volume
is
to
evaluate
the
condition
of
current
indicators
as
descriptors
of
science
and
mathematics
education
from
kindergarten
through
the
end
of
the
collegiate
experience
and
to
identify
new
directions
to
be
pursued.
Two
themes
are
central
to
the
indicators
in
this
volume—
excellence
and
equity.
Excellence
means
the
extent
to
which
high
standards
of
learning
are
attained;
equity
means
the
extent
to
which
these
standards
are
applied
to
all
groups.
Excellence
and
equity
are
the
foremost
goals
of
the
educational
system—
the
bottom
line
of
the
system’s
health.
The
Context
for
this
Report
The
changes
in
the
educational
system
described
in
this
volume
should
be
examined
within
the
context
of
major
events
in
the
country
that
affect
student
performance
in
elementary
and
secondary
schools
and
the
scientific
literacy
of
college
graduates.
This
section
provides
a
summary
of
some
of
the
recent
events
in
policy,
funding,
and
demographics
that
the
authors
considered
as
they
selected
indicators
for
this
volume.
These
events
all
affect
interpretation
of
the
selected
indicators.
Policy
In
response
to
mounting
evidence
from
national
and
international
studies
that
not
all
students
in
the
U.S.
educational
system
perform
well
in
science
and
mathematics,
educators
and
policy
makers
have
placed
a
new
emphasis
on
the
promotion
of
excellence
and
equity
for
all
U.S.
students.
(See
Chapter
2.)
One
initiative
to
deal
with
excellence
and
equity
issues
was
the
creation
of
a
set
of
National
Education
Goals
to
be
achieved
by
the
year
2000.
One
of
these
goals
stresses
the
importance
of
science
and
mathematics
education
by
challenging
school
systems
to
make
U.S.
students’
science
and
mathematics
achievement
first
in
the
world.
Another
initiative
has
been
to
implement
systemic
reform
efforts,
rather
than
piecemeal
projects,
to
unify
policies
of
reform.
For
example,
standards
have
been
developed
for
science
and
mathematics
education
to
provide
clear
goals
for
students,
teachers,
and
administrators
in
each
subject
area.
(For
more
information
on
science
and
mathematics
standards,
see
Chapter
3.)
Also,
new
assessment
strategies
have
been
created
to
measure
the
outcome
of
new
instructional
methods.
This
volume
provides
an
examination
of
the
extent
to
which
these
reform
efforts
have
been
adopted
by
educators
throughout
the
United
States.
Systemic
Reform
Systemic
reform
is
an
approach
to
educational
change
based
on
the
premise
that
achieving
excellence
and
equity
will
require
more
than
piecemeal
attacks
on
the
educational
system.
Three
elements
are
central
to
systemic
reform
(O’Day
&
Smith,
1993):
u
high
standards
for
learning
expected
from
all
students;
u
alignment
among
the
parts
of
the
educational
system;
and
u
a
change
in
the
governance
of
education,
which
includes
greater
school
site
flexibility
and
control
over
resources
and
strategies
of
curriculum
implementation.
Systemic
reform
efforts
include
more,
however,
than
just
a
vision
of
change
in
classroom
instruction.
They
u
involve
the
community
and
the
public
in
promoting
change
by
encouraging
partnerships
among
the
sectors
of
education
institutions
and
among
parents,
businesses,
and
the
community
to
develop
goals
for
students;
Introduction
with
the
idea
that
such
development
is
important
for
all
actors
in
the
educational
enterprise;
and
u
view
the
elementary
and
secondary
system
as
integrally
related
to
the
postsecondary
system;
both
community
colleges
and
4-year
institutions
are
involved.
Systemic
reform
efforts
emphasize
an
alignment
among
parts,
with
consistent
and
coherent
policies,
instructional
practices,
and
assessments.
For
instance,
instruction
in
elementary
grades
should
be
articulated
with
that
of
secondary
grades,
and
instruction
in
elementary
and
secondary
schools
should
prepare
students
to
succeed
both
in
the
postsecondary
education
environment
and
as
new
entrants
to
the
workforce.
The
vision
that
forms
the
foundation
for
systemic
change
forces
educators
to
expand
the
definition
of
excellence.
It
considers
new
components,
as
well
as
the
extent
of
alignment
of
the
components
toward
a
common
goal.
Many
of
the
necessary
measurements
of
alignment
are
not
currently
available.
Those
that
could
be
identified
are
shown
in
this
volume,
especially
in
Chapter
3.
Further
development
of
appropriate
indicators
must
be
continued
to
improve
measurements
of
the
conditions
that
affect
the
health
of
the
entire
school
system.
Standards
Standards
for
teachers
and
students
that
were
developed
by
national
professional
societies
play
a
pivotal
role
in
systemic
reform
efforts.
Indeed,
the
description
of
instruction
and
learning
portrayed
in
both
the
science
and
mathematics
standards
is
one
that
is
at
the
heart
of
systemic
change
efforts.
The
National
Research
Council,
representing
the
science
community,
is
developing
science
standards,
building
on
the
American
Association
for
the
Advancement
of
Science’s
Project
2061
and
the
National
Science
Teachers
Association’s
The
Content
Core.
The
National
Council
for
Teachers
of
Mathematics
developed
standards
that
were
published
in
1989,
1991,
and
1995.
Both
sets
of
standards
call
for
changes
in
teaching
methods,
teacher
preparation,
the
learning
environment,
and
the
system’s
expectations
of
all
students.
These
standards
are
not
merely
a
restatement
of
the
status
quo.
They
stress
high
levels
of
science
and
mathematics
competency.
They
call
for
a
different
kind
of
instruction,
emphasizing
depth
of
understanding
over
breadth
of
coverage
and
instruction
to
promote
problem
solving.
In
addition,
the
role
of
the
teacher
becomes
one
of
coach
or
model—
with
students
expected
to
engage
in
hands-on,
inquiry-based
learning—
rather
than
purveyor
of
knowledge.
The
principles
within
the
standards
are
widely
accepted
by
leaders
of
the
education
associations
to
provide
a
path
to
excellence.
Assessment
Assessment
is
a
tool
that
not
only
measures,
but
also
drives,
instruction.
As
such,
educators
consider
it
a
critical
part
of
the
teaching
and
learning
cycle.
The
types
of
assessment
used
in
schools
throughout
the
country
have
begun
to
change
in
recent
years.
Experiments
and
research
are
underway
to
develop
new
testing
strategies
that
require
more
problem
solving
and
active
engagement
on
the
part
of
the
students.
This
new
generation
of
tests
is
expected
to
contribute
to
a
more
demanding
educational
system
in
which
all
students
are
expected
to
be
competent
in
solving
problems
as
well
as
knowing
facts.
Federal
Funding
One
of
NSF’s
missions
is
to
provide
research,
guidance,
and
support
for
science
and
mathematics
education
in
the
United
States.
NSF
provides
funds
to
support
graduate
and
undergraduate
students
in
specific
science
and
engineering
fields,
and
primary
responsibility
for
educational
programs
at
NSF
is
vested
in
the
Directorate
for
Education
and
Human
Resources
(EHR).
Since
the
1980s,
EHR
has
grown
rapidly,
largely
propelled
by
increases
in
programs
for
elementary
and
secondary
education.
Although
EHR
spent
only
22
percent
of
its
budget
on
elementary
and
secondary
education
programs
in
1980,
it
expended
about
57
percent
of
its
budget
on
these
programs
in
1994.
(See
figure
1-1
and
appendix
table
1-1.)
A
The
science
and
mathematics
standards
are
not
merely
a
restatement
of
the
status
quo.
They
call
for
a
different
kind
of
instruction,
emphasizing
depth
of
understanding
over
breadth
of
coverage
and
instruction
to
promote
problem
solving.
Demographics
Even
as
educators
have
continued
to
search
for
new
ways
to
enhance
excellence
and
equity
during
the
past
2
decades,
the
demographic
context
of
the
educational
system
has
changed.
Several
of
the
changes
that
occurred
in
the
past
2
decades
are
ones
that
directly
influence
performance
of
U.S.
students.
Since
most
of
the
indicators
in
this
volume
are
averages
of
a
diverse
population
distributed
over
50
states,
they
reflect
important
trends,
such
as
changes
in
immigration
patterns;
however,
because
some
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–2
Budget
obligations
of
11
Federal
agencies
for
science
and
mathematics
education:
1994
1
Other
Federal
agencies
include
the
departments
of
Agriculture,
Commerce,
Energy,
Interior;
Smithsonian
Institution;
National
Aeronautics
and
Space
Administration;
and
Environmental
Protection
Agency.
NOTES:
Because
of
definitional
changes,
these
figures
may
not
be
compatible
with
previous
analyses
of
this
topic.
Agency
figures
may
be
different
as
a
result
of
evolving
priorities
for
uses
of
funding.
The
figures
reflect
appropriated
amounts.
SOURCE:
NSTC-CET
Budget
Working
Group.
(1995).
[Budget
figures
from
departmental
budget
offices].
Unpublished
tabulations.
See
appendix
table
1-2.
Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995
Kindergarten to 12th Undergraduate 4-year
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Dollars
(in
millions)
771
426
National
Science
Foundation
Department of Education
Dept.
of
Health
&
Human
Services
Department of Defense
Other seven agencies 1
1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Dollars
(in
millions)
Fiscal year
K-12
Undergraduate
Graduate
Informal
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–1
Funding
for
sectors
of
education
by
the
NSF
Directorate
for
Education
and
Human
Resources
(EHR):
1980
to
1994
SOURCES:
National
Science
Foundation.
(1992).
EHR
Directory
of
awards:
Fiscal
year
1990
(NSF
92-75).
Washington,
DC:
NSF;
National
Science
Foundation.
(1994).
[Budget
figures].
Unpublished
tabulations.
See
appendix
table
1–
1.
Elementary
and
Secondary
Between
1970
and
1985,
the
size
of
the
elementary
and
secondary
population
declined.
In
1985,
it
began
increasing
again.
During
this
period,
racial
and
ethnic
diversity
increased
slightly
within
the
elementary
and
secondary
school
population.
By
1993,
the
white
population
was
16
percent
smaller
than
it
had
been
in
1970.
The
black
population
was
about
the
same
size
as
in
1970,
and
the
population
of
other
races,
mostly
Asian,
grew.
The
Hispanic
population
increased
by
2
million
students,
or
about
two-thirds,
between
1975—
when
it
was
first
measured—
and
1993,
to
about
12
percent
of
the
elementary
and
secondary
population.
(See
figure
1-3
and
appendix
table
1-3.)
Corresponding
to
the
increase
in
the
Hispanic
population
was
an
increase
in
the
number
of
children
who
did
not
speak
English
in
the
home.
(See
figure
1-4
and
appendix
table
1-4.)
Between
1980
and
1990,
the
number
of
children
who
spoke
a
language
other
than
English
at
home
increased
from
4.5
million
to
6.3
million,
or
from
10
percent
to
14
percent
of
all
children.
In
1990,
just
under
1
million
children,
about
2
percent
of
all
children,
reported
that
they
did
not
speak
English
well
or
at
all.
A
higher
percentage
of
children
who
spoke
a
language
other
than
English
at
home
reported
to
the
Census
Bureau
that
they
speak
English
very
well.
However,
this
change
in
the
number
of
children
who
normally
speak
a
language
other
than
English
at
home
was
not
large
enough
to
have
any
dramatic
effect
on
the
indicators
of
student
performance
presented
in
this
volume.
Overall,
elementary
and
secondary
students
of
all
races
and
ethnic
origins
were
more
likely
in
1993
than
in
previous
years
to
have
parents
with
higher
education
levels.
(See
figure
1-5
and
appendix
table
1-5.)
Between
1970
and
1993,
the
proportion
of
parents
who
had
received
at
least
some
college
education
increased
from
25
percent
to
49
percent.
However,
in
1993,
only
37
percent
of
black
and
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
0
10
20
30
40
50
Number
of
students
(in
millions)White
Black
Hispanic
NOTES:
Data
not
available
for
Hispanics
before
1975.
Persons
of
Hispanic
origin
may
be
of
any
race.
SOURCES:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1990).
School
enrollment–
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
1989
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
443).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1991).
School
enrollment–
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1990
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
460).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
School
enrollment–
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Current
Population
series,
P-20,
No.
479).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
See
appendix
table
1–
3.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–3
Number
and
percent
of
students
enrolled
in
grades
1–
12,
by
race
or
ethnic
origin:
1970
to
1993
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
students
White
Black
Hispanic
1980 1990
0
10
20
30
40
50
Number
of
students
(in
millions)
47
4.6
45
6.3
All
children
ages
5–
17
Children
who
speak
a
language
other
than
English
at
home
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–4
Number
of
children
ages
5–
17
speaking
a
language
other
than
English
at
home:
1980
and
1990
NOTES:
Includes
only
children
in
households
and
excludes
children
in
group
quarters.
SOURCES:
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce.
(1980).
1980
Census
of
population,
detailed
population
characteristics:
United
States
summary
(PC-80-1-D1-A).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census;
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce.
(1990).
1990
Census
of
population
(CPH-L-96).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
See
appendix
table
1–
4.
Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995
6 I N D I C AT O R S O F S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S E D U C AT I O N 1 9 9 5
1970 1980 1990 1993
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
families
White
Black
Hispanic
NOTES:
Universe:
Families
with
children
under
age
18.
Data
not
available
for
Hispanics
before
1980.
Persons
of
Hispanic
origin
may
be
of
any
race.
SOURCES:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1992).
Household
and
family
characteristics:
March
1991
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
458).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1993).
Household
and
family
characteristics:
March
1992
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
467).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
Household
and
family
characteristics:
March
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
477).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
See
appendix
table
1–
6.
Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–6
Percent
of
white,
black,
and
Hispanic
families
with
only
one
parent
present,
by
race
or
ethnic
origin:
1970
to
1993
1970 1980 1990 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
0– 11 years of school
Any college
All students
1970 1980 1990 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
0– 11 years of school
Any college
White students
1970 1980 1990 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
0– 11 years of school
Any college
Black students
1970 1980 1990 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
0– 11 years of school
Any college
Hispanic students
NOTES:
Data
not
available
for
Hispanics
before
1980.
Persons
of
Hispanic
origin
may
be
of
any
race.
SOURCES:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1990).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1971).
School
enrollment:
October
1970
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
222).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1981).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1981
and
1980
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
400).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1991).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1990
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
460).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1993).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1992
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
474).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Current
Population
Series
P-20,
No.
479).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
See
appendix
table
1–
5.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–5
Education
level
of
parents
of
elementary
or
secondary
school
students,
by
student
race
or
ethnic
origin:
1970
to
1993
Percent
of
parents
Percent
of
parents
Percent
of
parents
Percent
of
parents
Postsecondary
Somewhat
less
racial
and
ethnic
diversity
exists
among
the
college
population
than
the
elementary
and
secondary
population,
and
diversity
among
postsecondary
students
has
not
changed
greatly
in
the
past
decade.
Between
1970
and
1993,
the
proportion
of
students
enrolled
in
college
who
were
white
decreased.
(See
figure
1-8
and
appendix
table
1-3.)
The
proportion
of
black
students
has
increased
little
since
1975,
when
it
reached
10
percent.
The
proportion
of
students
of
other
races
and
of
Hispanic
origin
each
increased
to
about
7
percent
of
students
enrolled
in
college
by
1993.
The
Organization
of
the
Report
This
report
considers
changes
in
science
and
mathematics
education
in
the
United
States
with
regard
to
excellence
and
equity
within
the
educational
system.
The
data
are
presented
in
three
chapters,
followed
by
a
concluding
chapter:
Chapter
2
provides
an
update
on
the
achievement
of
students,
looking
at
overall
changes
in
achievement
and
differences
by
sex,
race
and
ethnic
origin,
and
region.
The
chapter
reports
some
“good
news,”
in
terms
of
excellence
and
equity;
however,
many
questions
remain.
Chapter
3
considers
the
characteristics
of
the
elementary
and
secondary
educational
system,
examining
the
adequacy
of
teachers,
curricula,
and
resources
in
light
of
what
the
science
and
mathematics
standards
have
presented
as
a
guiding
vision
for
science
and
mathematics
instruction.
These
data
provide
the
basis
for
both
celebration
and
concern.
These
analyses
also
highlight
areas
where
information
is
slim.
Chapter
4
looks
at
postsecondary
education.
It
considers
how
well
the
system
is
producing
students
who
are
adequately
prepared
for
the
science,
engineering,
and
technology
workforce.
This
chapter
examines
equity
in
terms
of
scientific
literacy.
It
also
considers
how
U.S.
students
fare
compared
with
students
from
other
nations.
Chapter
5,
the
concluding
chapter,
contains
additional
reflections,
not
as
much
on
what
the
indicators
say,
but
on
what
the
present
system
of
indicators
does
not
say.
The
chapter
returns
to
policy
issues
and
suggests
critical
themes
that
researchers
should
pursue
in
the
future.
n
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993 0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
Numbers
(in
thousands)White
Black
Hispanic
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–8
Race
or
ethnic
origin
of
students
enrolled
in
college:
1970
to
1993
NOTES:
Data
not
available
for
Hispanics
before
1975.
Persons
of
Hispanic
origin
may
be
of
any
race.
SOURCES:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1990).
School
enrollment–
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
1989
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
443).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1991).
School
enrollment–
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1990
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
460).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
School
enrollment–
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Current
Population
Series,
P-20,
No.
479).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
See
appendix
table
1–
3.
Indicators of Science and Mathematics Education 1995
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
students
White
Black
Hispanic
1970 1980 1990 1993 0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
of
children
White
Black
NOTE:
Poverty
status
of
1970,
1980,
1990,
and
1993
as
surveyed
on
a
sample
in
March
of
1971,
1981,
1991,
and
1994,
respectively.
SOURCES:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1971).
Characteristics
of
the
low-income
population:
1970
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
18).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1981).
Characteristics
of
the
population
below
the
poverty
level:
1980
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
133).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1991).
Poverty
in
the
United
States:
1990
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
175).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office;
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
Official
poverty
statistics:
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
188).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
See
appendix
table
1–
7.
F
I
G
U
R
E
1
–7
Percent
of
white
and
black
children
ages
6–
17
below
the
poverty
level:
1970
to
1993
“…
In
addition,
the
Committee
expects
the
[National
Science]
Foundation
to
establish
a
biennial
science
and
mathematics
education
indicator
report,
distinct
from
the
science
and
engineering
indicator
report,
that
evaluates
the
progress
of
the
United
States
in
improving
the
science
and
mathematics
capability
of
its
students,
and
the
effectiveness
of
all
Federal
and
State
education
programs
as
part
of
this
process.”
2
Calculated
by
deriving
the
percentage
of
students
achieving
basic
levels
in
1982
and
1992
for
each
education
level
of
parents
and
adjusting
the
education
of
parents
to
a
current
population.
National
Science
Foundation.
(1992).
EHR
Directory
of
awards:
Fiscal
year
1990
(NSF
92-75).
Washington,
DC:
NSF.
National
Science
Foundation.
(1994).
[Budget
figures].
Unpublished
tabulations.
O’Day,
J.A.,
&
Smith,
M.S.
(1993).
Systemic
reform
and
educational
opportunity.
In
S.H.
Fuhrman
(Ed.),
Designing
coherent
education
policy
(pp.
250-312).
New
York:
JosseyBass
Inc.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1971).
Characteristics
of
the
low-income
population:
1970
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
18).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1971).
School
enrollment:
October
1970
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
222).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1981).
Characteristics
of
the
population
below
the
poverty
level:
1980
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
133).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1981).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1981
and
1980
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
400).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1990).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
1989
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P20,
No.
443).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1991).
Poverty
in
the
United
States:
1990
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-60,
No.
175).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1991).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1990
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
460).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1992).
Household
and
family
characteristics:
March
1991
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
458).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1993).
Household
and
family
characteristics:
March
1992
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
467).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
Chapter 1 References
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
Household
and
family
characteristics:
March
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
477).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
Official
poverty
statistics:
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Series
P-60,
No.
188).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
(1994).
School
enrollment—
social
and
economic
characteristics
of
students:
October
1993
(Current
Population
Reports,
Population
Characteristics
Series
P-20,
No.
479).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office.
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce.
(1980).
1980
Census
of
population,
detailed
population
characteristics:
United
States
summary
(PC
80-1-D1-A).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
U.S.
Department
of
Commerce.
(1990).
1990
Census
of
population
(CPH-L-96).
Washington,
DC:
U.S.
Bureau
of
the
Census.
1 0 I N D I C AT O R S O F S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S E D U C AT I O N 1 9 9 5