Title : IAIOES04 REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON THE ON THE COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF OCEANIC, COASTAL AND ESTUARINE PROCESSES IN TEMPERATE ZONES Type : IAI Newsletter NSF Org: GEO Date : August 8, 1995 File : iaioes04 THE INTER-AMERICAN INSTITUTE FOR GLOBAL CHANGE RESEARCH REPORT ON THE IAI WORKSHOP ON THE COMPARATIVE STUDIES OF OCEANIC, COASTAL AND ESTUARINE PROCESSES IN TEMPERATE ZONES August 2-6, 1993 Montevideo, Uruguay TABLE OF CONTENTS =46OREWORD 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 =09 I. BACKGROUND 9 =09 II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE 12 1. Coastal Areas 12 =09 2. Ocean Currents 16 =09 3. Evidence of Climate Change 18 =09 4. Possible Environmental Changes 19 =09 III. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES 24 1. The Land-Sea Interface 24 2. Oceanic Processes =09 26 =09 3. Economic and Social Impacts of Global Change 32 =09 IV. UNDERLYING NEEDS 34 1. Field Research 34 =09 2. Modeling 37 =09 3. Training and Education =09 38 =09 4. Communications, Data & Information Management 41 =09 V. REFERENCES 48 APPENDIX 1: IAI Scientific Themes 51 APPENDIX 2: Acronyms 52 =09 APPENDIX 3: Workshop Participants 54 =46OREWORD This report is the work of a new organization, the Inter- American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI). The Institute was created in May of 1992 to address the need for advanced study of regionally significant global change issues. It is designed to evolve as a network of research facilities throughout the Americas which will augment research capabilities and promote education and training within the scientific fields most important to current and future global change research. Establishment of such an institute had been discussed extensively within the current decade, in a variety of forums. Participants from throughout the region met in two workshops on the development of IAI: in San Juan, Puerto Rico on July 15-19, 1991, and in Mar del Plata, Argentina on March 29-April 2, 1992. The agreement establishing the IAI was signed by eleven countries on May 13, 1992 in Montevideo, Uruguay, and an Implementation Committee was established. Since then, five more countries have signed the agreement, increasing IAI member nations to sixteen. The organizational structure and scientific research agenda of IAI have been carefully set up to reflect the goal of improved research into global change. The multinational agreement establishing the institute notes the importance of an evolving scientific agenda that reflects an appropriate balance among biogeographic areas of scientific importance. It also stresses the need to address in an integral fashion the physical, biological, economic, and social issues relating to global change. Seven broadly defined research topics have been identified as priorities for special focus. To identify the most pressing scientific questions and socio- economic issues within those seven priority topics, a group of physical, biological, and social scientists met in Silver Spring, Maryland on March 5-6, 1992. The resulting document, the Report of the Meeting of Scientific Experts, provided the basis for a series of workshops on scientific program development, intended to advance the science agenda of the IAI. This report discusses the results of the first of those workshops, which was held in Montevideo, Uruguay, Aug. 2-6, 1993, to advance the agenda for the topic, "Comparative Studies of Oceanic, Coastal and Estuarine Processes in Temperate Zones." It details a scientific research plan that proposes an observational strategy, lays down data management guidelines, and outlines the modeling developments needed to achieve these objectives. It is only a plan, a guide to action. The next step, as the science plan states, is to develop an implementation plan or program for this topic. Most sincere thanks must be expressed to all those who helped with this report, whether or not their names are mentioned. Special acknowledgment must be extended to the local organizing committee for its excellent efforts in managing the complications of an international workshop. Members of the committee were: Ing. =46ederico Garc=EDa Brum and Lic. Annie Hareau, from the Comisi=F3n Nacional sobre Cambio Global of Uruguay and C/N Carlos E. Ere=F1o, from the Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval of Argentina, as well as the staff: Mar=EDa Jos=E9 Aznarez, Carolina Garc=EDa, Mar=EDa Clara Bonino, Est= ela Pereyra and Elvira Gentile. Also acknowledged with much gratitude are those institutions whose contributions allowed the workshop to occur. These include: Comisi=F3n Nacional Sobre Cambio Global (Uruguay), Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente (Uruguay), Ministerio de Defensa Nacional (Uruguay), Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores (Uruguay), Fundaci=F3n Cono Sur-Uruguay, Comisi=F3n T=E9cnica Mixta de Frente Mar=EDtimo (Uruguay-Argentina), Comisi=F3n Nacional de Cambio Global (Argentina), the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF), the Organization of American States (OAS), the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programma (IGBP/START) Secretariat, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Gratitude must also be expressed to the working group chairperson and co-chairperson who led discussions and whose written reports and stimulating verbal contributions ultimately led to the drafting and completion of this report. =09 Additionally, I would like to express my most sincere thanks to Dr. Robert Corell (National Science Foundation), Dr. Michael Hall, James Buizer, Lisa Farrow and Claudia Nierenberg (NOAA/Office of Global Programs) for their constant enthusiasm and support during the development of this workshop. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the commitment, dedication and enthusiasm of my staff members, Raquel Gomes, Marcella Ohira and D=E9lia Levandoski, without whose support in preparing this report would have been impossible to accomplish. Rub=E9n Lara Lara IAI Executive Scientist EXECUTIVE SUMMARY More than 80 scientists from North and South America plus representatives from international marine programs shared information about oceanic, coastal, and estuarine processes in temperate zones in a three-day symposium in Montevideo. This was the first of seven thematic workshops to be sponsored by the Inter- American Institute for Global Change Research. The symposium was followed by an intense two-day workshop in which the scientists collaborated in producing an extensive report with recommendations for an IAI science agenda on this subject. The workshop divided into six working groups discussing separately the following topics: (1) Oceanic Processes, (2) Coastal Processes, (3) Estuarine, Coastal Lagoons, Fjords, Rivers and Salt Marshes, (4) Capacity and Needs for Education and Training, (5) Data Management and Communications; and (6) IAI and Other International Programs. Periodically the groups met in plenary to discuss their progress. Following are conclusions from each working group on the initial steps that need to be taken in the development of the research program to further explore the subject. SCIENTIFIC ISSUES AND PRIORITIES Oceanic Processes The temperate coasts of North and South America present a unique research opportunity, that of comparing two pairs of eastern and western boundary currents that share some important features but differ in others. To further our understanding of the impacts of global change on oceanic processes, some of the key issues that should be addressed from this comparative perspective are as follows: * Development of better methods of studying seasonal climate in the south Pacific and Atlantic Oceans; * Enhancement of efforts to survey the continental shelf and slope, particularly the time and area involved when changes take place; * Implementation of a sequence for studying oceanic and coastal processes; * Development and use of retrospective records, i.e., use of high-resolution anaerobic marine sediments; * Description and understanding of the interdecadal change in oceanic ecosystems; * Development or adaptation of numerical models of atmospheric and oceanic circulation, and ecosystem response to be applied on Southern Hemisphere regions; * Advancement of our understanding of distributions of plankton, and the way they vary from year to year between the northern and southern temperate oceanic zones of the Americas. Coastal Processes The group focusing on coastal processes determined that the following six general issues must be addressed to improve the understanding of the impacts of global change in the coastal zone: * Determine the mean state of the atmospheric and oceanic climate; * Describe the typical scales of variability of the atmospheric and oceanic climate; * Understand how coastal ecosystems respond to variations in the influences on them; How much time might be involved, and over how large an area? * Determine the processes that control the variability of the atmospheric and oceanic climate, and the way they interact; * Define how socioeconomic systems and increasing human population affect these processes; * Incorporate the coastal zone processes into predictive models that reveal both the probable and the actual response of those processes to global change. Estuaries, Coastal Lagoons, Fjords, Rivers and Salt Marshes These systems are the buffer zone between land and ocean, so they are the receptacle for most natural and anthropogenic materials reaching the ocean from land. This group concluded that five key issues should be addressed in understanding the land-sea interface: * Evaluate the release of human-generated materials either directly or indirectly into semi-enclosed ecosystems; * Separate the effects of overharvesting or overcultivation from other anthropogenic and natural effects on these ecosystems; * Study changes in river flow, and their impacts on the biotic communities and the biogeochemical cycles; * Understand the morphological, hydrological, and hydrographic changes associated with sea level rise; * Evaluate how near-shore human development alters shoreline and bottom topography. Workshop participants recognized the need to integrate natural science with public policy. One of the IAI's founding principals is that th= e general public must better understand global change and its impact on society before the regional community can effectively work toward a sustainable future. Priority Socioeconomic Isses Traditionally, socioeconomic issues and concerns have not been integrated with our physical knowledge. This must change as policy-makers require scientific information on the interaction between human societies and natural systems during a time of global change. Socioeconomic issues include the rate of global change, the anticipated physical and socioeconomic effects it might cause, and the possible response options. Workshop participants recommended the following issues to be addressed: (1) What are the important time and space scales of global change that society should be aware of? (2) How much population pressure will be exerted on land and marine environments in the coastal temperate zones of the Americas? (3) How vulnerable are the important ecosystems in the oceanic and land- sea interface zones? (4) How significant are the marketable and non-marketable resources that would likely be affected? (5) What influences on the marine environment might be expected from local and regional human activities such as exploitation of biological and mineral resources, waste disposal, and recreation use? (6) How will the land-sea interface system evolve in the coming decades under specific scenarios of climate, sea level, land use, and human activities? (7) What changes have already occurred? RECOMMENDATIONS The situation in the Americas is very heterogeneous because of the different historical backgrounds of the various countries. This has led = to (a) countries with adequate physical facilities but inadequate human resources, (b) countries that lack both physical and human resources, and (c) countries that have both physical and human resources but are in the process of trying to integrate the different disciplines, especially climate and biology, and the natural and social sciences. Of high priority is the adaptation and/or development of models for the Southern Hemisphere regions. Model results should be presented in a manner that can be useful to scientists from other disciplines, and under- standable by policy-makers. For this endeavor also, there exists a great need for human resources. Given the need for predictive capability, the quantitative approaches should include both stochastic and mechanistic models. It was recognized that, particularly in Latin America, an inadequate number of individuals is being trained, retrained, or repatriated to meet national and regional needs. Therefore, the following key underlying issues should be addressed: (1) The value of scientific work should be recognized by society; (2) It is important to maintain an academic environment within the universities of the Americas; (3) High priority should be given to improvement of physical and operational facilities; (4) Priority should be given to existing institutions; (5) Scholarships should be established at all levels of scientific careers. Post-graduate education in developing countries should be enhanced; (6) Establishment of a center or centers of excellence in interdisciplinary oceanography should be of high priority. =09 Capacity and Needs for Training and Education Several approaches to promoting multinational training and education among IAI member nations were considered. They included: * Foster cooperative international and interdisciplinary research programs; * Promote visits and short-term courses between nations by scientists with recognized areas of expertise; * Convene regional meetings for natural and social scientists; * Update undergraduate and graduate-level curricula; * Support exchange visits, joint research projects, and pre-doctoral and post-doctoral training opportunities in member IAI countries. * Develop modeling capacities throughout the region. Data Management and Communications The sharing of information about global change is the very basis for the founding of IAI. Data and information management provide the critical bridge between nations seeking a greater scientific understanding o= f global change, and hoping to transfer that understanding into effective public policy decisions. During this workshop, scientists from throughout the region agreed on the need to generate new data. They also agreed that the data management infrastructure already available in other international programs should have wider use, and that data in hand throughout the Americas should be more accessible to the entire regional scientific community. IAI and other international programs A broad range of programs is already studying global change. This group recognized that the IAI should seek cooperation and coordination among these programs, thereby optimizing use of scientific resources such as personnel, facilities, and finances. The IAI should also cooperate with other programs in identifying priorities for scientific study= , and identifying major gaps in information that need filling, so that the various programs compliment each other. I. BACKGROUND A symposium and workshop on Comparative Studies on Oceanic, Coastal, and Estuarine Processes in the Temperate Zones of the Americas was held in Montevideo, Uruguay, between August 2-6, 1993. The meeting was instigated by the Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI), created in 1992, and was the first of seven workshops to be held on key areas of focus in the study of global change. =09 First, more than 100 scientists from the region, as well as representatives from international programs, participated in a three-day symposium in which scientists shared the results of their research studies and programs. In the two-day workshop that followed the symposium, a smaller group of scientific experts collaborated in producing this report to the IAI Conference of Parties, with recommendations on the science agenda for this topic. The purpose of this report is to make available to the IAI Conference of the Parties and to other interested parties, a scientific research plan designed to investigate the key processes related to global change in the oceanic, coastal, and estuarine regions of the temperate zones of the Americas. The report outlines how the IAI will strengthen basic research and promote advanced education and training in global change-related fields. The IAI aims to facilitate the dialogue between scientists and decision-makers necessary for the development and implementation of sound policies. In order to accomplish these goals, the IAI seeks to establish new modes of international cooperation and communication networks. This report is, however, only the beginning, or perhaps, a direction to what workshop participants think should be a long-term program to address the main issues identified during the workshop. It is a dynamic plan that should be advanced in response to on-going research efforts and emerging challenges. Ultimately, the research plan outlined in this report aims at providing a solid scientific understanding of global change processes--an understanding that will allow the policy-makers of the Americas to make better decisions with regard to the socio-economic impacts of global change. It is currently anticipated that the global environment is likely to change more rapidly within a single generation than it has over thousands of years. Such a rapid change would hold potential for serious impacts on life on Earth. In recent years, these potential impacts have been well- articulated in social, economic, and political terms. The effects of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases and the decline of stratospheric ozone on human health, climate patterns, and economic productivity are well- recognized topics in the news media. Land-use practices such as agriculture and forestry, residential development, and industrial practices are believe= d to be altering the global atmosphere, water resources, and biological productivity. Government leaders cannot afford to ignore the fact that the ability to predict climate change and its potential impacts may be extremely important in maintaining and increasing economic productivity. Coastal and estuarine regions are habitats with clear ties to potential global changes in climate and human activity. Estuaries, coastal lagoons, fjords, river mouths, salt marshes, and other features at the Land- Sea Interface (LSI) are the buffer zone between land and ocean. This interface, therefore, is the receptacle for most natural and anthropogenic materials reaching the ocean from land. Biological communities of this region are rich and productive, having high intrinsic value, and high human utility. They are, however, highly vulnerable. Many economically important features of coastal and estuarine systems are related to large scale patterns of atmospheric and ocean circulation, physical features that may change in currently unpredictable ways even under natural influences. Sporadic fluctuations in upwelling, river runoff, storms and coastal circulation have consequences for important biological processes such as plankton blooms, the recruitment and distribution of commercially important fish and invertebrates, regional and local biodiversity, and bird and marine mammal distributions. Human activity, on the other hand, also has heavy impact on coastal zones in general, and bays and estuaries in particular. Half the world's population lives within 60 kilometers of the coastline, and those numbers are expected to increase significantly in the coming decades. Human populations directly alter coastal marine habitats by release of sewage and toxic materials, by altering patterns of river runoff, by changing the location and composition of shoreline habitats, by harvesting species for food,and by introduction of new species. The economic consequences of these activities are often severe, affecting local food supplies, the health of swimmers and consumers of seafood, local tourism, and aesthetic components that affect quality of life. The primary global concerns for marine environments thus fall into two classes, those associated with local activity by humans at the coastal zone and estuary scale, and those associated with potential global changes in climate (perhaps also human-related) that might impact the regional circulation and physical characteristics of coastal communities at the ocean basin scale. The temperate zones offer a logical laboratory for studying both human and natural effects on coastal areas, as they serve as the natural conduit between the poles and the tropics for atmospheric and oceanic circulation and climate. The oceanic circulation is characterized by gyres that are, in general, very stable. The currents at their boundaries are regions of high variability. This variability is due to many processes, but most notably eddy generation and meandering of the currents. The temperate coasts of both North and South America present a unique opportunity to compare the effects of global change on two pairs of eastern and western boundary currents that share some important features, but differ in others (e.g., the disproportionate influence of river flow in the western boundary currents of South America compared to those of North America). The challenge is to design and carry out interdisciplinary research projects that focus on the interactions of external forces and responses. II. THE CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE Because the marine areas represent numerous scientific disciplines--physical, natural and social--and span large areas of the regio= n, there is considerable variation in the abilities of the relevant scientific communities in addressing the identified issues. There is general consensus, nevertheless, on some information, which will be discussed here. Coastal Areas There are five major types of anthropogenic effects on bays, estuaries, fjords, coastal lagoons and salt marshes: (1) The release of human-generated materials either directly or indirectly into semi-enclosed coastal ecosystems can have a serious effect on those ecosystems. The most critical materials are toxic compounds (e.g. heavy metals, hydrocarbons, pesticides, etc.), nutrients from sewage and fertilize= rs (especially N and P), and pathogenic organisms. Toxic wastes may have direct negative effects on human and marine species. Increase of nutrient loading often results in eutrophication and phytoplankton blooms (sometimes dominated by toxic species) which may lead to anoxic conditions. The extent of the impact on each particular semi-enclosed ecosystem depends upon several factors, including the magnitude of the inputs, the flushing characteristics of the body (water renewal) and the physico-chemical characteristics of each compound. Understanding of all these processes is of high priority at the land-sea interfaces. (2) Harvesting of indigenous species from bays, estuaries and fjords, and cultivation of both indigenous and exotic species modify ecosystems. In addition to intentional introduction, there can be deteriorative effects fro= m unintentional introduction (for example, discharge of ship ballast that contains exotic species). Reductions in abundance of endemic or indigenous species, alteration of community structure, and loading with excess organic matter can occur in response to these various modifications of populations. A scientific challenge is to separate the effects of over-harvesting or over= - cultivation from other anthropogenic effects (e.g. degradation of coastal habitats) and natural effects (e.g. the impact of altered circulation patter= ns on recruitment). (3) The alteration of river flow rates: Changes in the rate or timing of freshwater flows into semi-enclosed coastal ecosystems have direct consequences on their physicaldynamics and morphology. As a consequence, the alteration of habitats for species may lead to dramatic changes in populations, many of them of commercial value. One of the most dramatic changes related to river flow modifications (e.g. through the construction of dams) is the alteration of sediment supply to coastal ecosystems. In extreme cases the dramatic reduction of water flows has not only produced a change from an estuarine into a hyper-saline system, but has lead to erosion of the deltaic structure. The effect of these chang= es on the biotic communities and the biogeochemical cycles is largely unknown. (4) Morphological, hydrological and hydrographic changes are associated with sea level rise, and they have great significance on geologic time scale= s. On shallow shelves sea level rise may have a more immediate effect. On shorter time scales, coastal management and human development should be considered together. For example, erosion-accretion processes must be monitored, especially in areas of high human impact. Objective procedures need to be developed to review the effects of natural and anthropogenic processes in the coastal zone. Policies need to be developed for issues of particular socio-economic importance. (5) Alteration of shorelines and bottom topography during near-shore human development activities have often dramatically altered coastal configuration both directly (e.g. by filling tidal wetlands) and indirectly (e.g. by altering patterns of deposition and erosion via alterations of shoreline flows through the use of man-made structures. Understanding the response of the ecosystems to these activities is of high priority. Other, numerous fundamental variables and processes are poorly known. For instance, primary production in the region has not been measured on a long-term basis. The poor knowledge of primary production and a number of other fundamental ecological processes and variables limits our ability to manage fisheries in a sustainable fashion. High prior= ity should be given to establishment of baseline data for these and other important variables. A cornerstone to nearly all questions relating to global change is the impact on biological diversity. There are clear social and economic ramifications when large alterations occur in the geographic range of harvested species. In addition, changes in the distribution of other species that have little direct economic importance may have dramatic consequences on marine communities, due to the potentially cascading effects of altered species interactions. Although we have extensive knowledge about how both physical and biological processes affect local patterns of abundance of marine species, we have but a rudimentary understanding of the processes affecting the biogeographic range of some species. Predicting or forecasting the impact of climatic changes or increased anthropogenic effects requires a new focus on the processes that set limits to species distributions. What sets these limits and how susceptible are they to environmental change? We have long known that marine flora and fauna can be divided into biogeographic provinces that are separated by locations representing dramatic changes in species composition. These floral and faunal boundaries are generally associated with regions of sharp gradients in the physical environment. As a result, we have traditionally viewed distributions as a simple expression of physiological tolerances. If predicting the effects of climatic changes were merely an exercise in shifting the distribution of marine species north or south, the problem would be relatively simple. However, research in the last decade has shown that oceanographic processes play a much more important role in the dynamics of marine species than their responses to physical variables like temperature might suggest. Mesoscale patterns of circulation (e.g. eddies, gyres, jets, squir= ts) and upwelling, as well as larger-scale currents, can alter the abundance of species by either changing their patterns of transport, particularly as juveniles, or by altering the abundance of other species in the food chain. The coasts along the temperate zones of North and South America contain several major faunal boundaries. These regions are all locations of either the confluence of major currents or associated with majo= r stationary gyres. In each case, the effects of large physical gradients in temperature and other parameters are confounded by abrupt changes in the pattern of transport. This replicate set of major faunal boundaries provides a unique opportunity for separating the roles of physiological limits versus barriers to effective dispersal as causes of species range limits. The confluence region in the southwestern Atlantic contrasts with the northwestern Atlantic because of the impact of the Rio de la Plata, the second largest river system, after the Amazon, of the South American continent. The Rio de la Plata's discharge is equivalent to those of the Mississippi or the Orinoco Rivers. The river system delivering water and suspended particles to the Rio de la Plata estuary drains some of the most economically important areas of South America. The Rio de la Plata Basin is undergoing extensive development of its hydroelectric and transportation potential and the Basin is an important component in global food production. In addition to posing unique features, the South American continental margin may offer unique glimpses of past responses to climatic variation. The morphology of the Rio de la Plata was seriously altered at least four times during the Pleistocene glaciations due to declines in sea level that exceeded 120 meters. These drops undoubtedly caused incision of the river valley followed by major transgressions in sea level. These events= , coupled with the relative stability of the continental margin, could yield significant new evidence on the regional and global paleoclimate. The Rio de la Plata is a unique environment in that strong sediment flux from the La Plata is being focused into a zone of high biological productivity. The process at the sediment water interface by which organic matter is being assimilated into the sedimentary column is important both to understanding the global carbon budget and in the location of new hydrocarbon resources. The dependence of these processes on the long-term variability of the confluence and the sediment influx due to climatic changes is also a question with broad impact in many fields. Ocean Currents Western boundary currents share many common dynamics, but each has its own peculiarities. Do they make any difference? Will the response of a given boundary current depend on its unique features as well as its common features? Currently, there is a large gap between what is known about circulation in the northern versus the southern hemisphere. This can easily be seen when one considers the disproportionate amount of geophysical, oceanographic, and paleoclimatic data available for the two hemispheres. The Gulf Stream, the western boundary of the North Atlantic gyre, is undoubtedly the best studied western boundary current (Figures 1 and 2). =46ig. 1 - The track chart plots the month's movement of reported operational drift buoys. Each track is 1 buoy and the large dot is the buoy's last reported position for the month. =46ig. 2 - Mapping position plot chart of data received during the month. Its importance in determining the climate of the east coast of the U.S.A. and the west coast of Europe, as well as its influence on local fisheries, is unquestioned. Similarly, in the case of the Kuroshio Current o= ff the coast of Japan, Japanese and international efforts led to the establishment of programs designed to advance understanding of its dynamics and local impact. In contrast, the dynamics of western boundary currents off South America have been studied in more detail only in recent years. The North Pacific boundary currents, particularly the California Current along the west coast of the U.S.A., have received nearly as much attention as the Gulf Stream. The South Pacific eastern boundary current along the coast of Chile and Peru, the Humboldt Current system, has received considerable recent attention by fishery researchers due to the relation with El Ni=F1o and the Southern Oscillation. Studies of the region north of 33=B0 S latitude have focused on inter-annual variability. However= , the region of divergence of the West Wind Drift west of Chile is poorly understood. Very little is known about the seasonal variability of that par= t of the current and southward. Subduction of subpolar water below subtropical thermoclines occurs along the poleward edge of the mid-latitude anticyclonic gyres. Given proper meteorological conditioning, the subduction process can lead to effective water mass formation/conversion. These processes lead to deep ocean ventilation and redistribution of heat, salt and dissolved gases, including CO2 and other greenhouse gases, in the deep ocean. Evidence of Climate Change High resolution anaerobic marine sediment records permit us to reconstruct a wide range of proxy variables related to environmental/climatic change, through analysis of the remains of important components of the pelagic ecosystem (phyto- and zooplankton, as well as nekton) and associated geochemical "tracers" of physical conditions and ecosystem function/processes (Baumgartner and Sautter, 1992). The presence of terrigenous material injected from coastal areas to the shelf an= d slope provides an additional record of the continental climate (Soutar and Crill, 1977). The evidence includes pollen and charcoal deposition which provide a record of variability of the terrestrial ecosystems due to changes in vegetation and onshore fire regimes (Byme et al., 1979). This record allows us to compare the preserved history of ocean climate and the pelagic environment with load-based proxy records more closely related to changes in atmospheric circulation. Following is a brief description of the environmental conditions and processes that can be represented by natural proxy variables reconstructed from high resolution sediment records: Ocean Temperature Variability in ocean temperature can be reconstructed from oxygen isotopes, and from analyses of foraminifera (Dunbar, 1983; Sautter and Thunnel, 1991). This variability provides insight into the changing intensit= y of physical processes related to large-scale variability of current systems and coastal upwelling. Ocean Fertility Work is underway to use trace element analyses in foraminifera as an historical index of nutrient concentrations in the water in which the organisms lived (Bruland, 1980). This will provide a proxy for the fertilization processes governed by coastal upwelling and large-scale changes in the major boundary currents. Ocean Productivity Estimated rates of flux of planktonic remains to the sediments can be used as indices of inter-decadal scale changes in primary and secondary productivity (Baumgartner et al., 1985; Lange et al. 1990). Work in stable carbon isotopes also shows great promise for developing another high- resolution indicator of productivity. Changes in Faunal and Floral Boundaries and Abundance Latitudinal shifts in faunal and floral boundaries are also recorded in the sediments by changes in the composition of species assemblages and the rates of flux of phytoplankton and zooplankton remains (Baumgartner et al., 1985; Lange et al., 1990; Casey et al., 1989). These shifts are also associated with productivity changes. The flux of the fish scales of the sma= ll schooling clupeoids (sardines and anchovies) also provide a sensitive record of the growth and decline of these populations, representing the expansion and contraction of their ranges over inter-decadal and centennial time scales (Soutar and Isaacs, 1974; Baumgartner et al, 1992; Holmgren-Urba and Baumgartner, 1993). Recent work indicates that these changesin geographic range appear to be closely linked to variability in ocean climate= . Possible Environmental Changes This section discusses the possible environmental changes that may occur in temperate coastal areas under current global change scenarios. The main anthropogenic impact on the coastal ecosystem, other than the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations, is the generation of changes in rainwater runoff patterns through land use modifications, pollutants, and the damming of rivers. By doing this, the total amount of water delivered to the coast varies as does the timing of the flow. This wil= l have a significant effect on coastal currents since the flow of buoyancy- driven coastal currents is typically ten times the river flow. A second effe= ct can be reduced sediment transport. In the short term, reduced sediment load can affect turbidity patterns in coastal areas. In the long term, this = can cause land subsidence (the Nile delta, for example) and then significantly affect the location of coastal fronts. Climate change can have both direct and very indirect effects on the ocean. Because of the extreme non-linear character of some of the processes, our discussion is no doubt incomplete. The effects of climate change can be categorized as those related to wind stress variations, runoff variations, and heat flux variations, plus other ecological effects. Some processes, such as stratification, depend on all of these processes. Among possible Environmental Changes, the folllowing were considered: Wind-related Processes Variations in the wind field are manifested in both the absolute stress and the magnitude of along-shore and cross-shelf components of the wind. Increases in the absolute stress may increase wave energy and mixing energy. Changes in wind direction may actually change along-shore wind stress, which drives upwelling and downwelling, without increases in the absolute stress. A change in direction of seasonal winds could occur because of slight shifts in the position of seasonal highs and lows, such a= s the Bermuda high over the North Atlantic or a high over the southeast Pacific. Three processes highly affected by changes in wind stress or changes in wind direction are: cross-shelf upwelling/downwelling, stratification/destratification, and along-shore surface current. Along-shore currents in shallow waters of the continental shelf are driven by the wind stress. As was described in the case of upwelling, changes in the magnitude and direction of winds would significantly change current strengths over the continental shelf. This in turn could change the residence time of shelf waters, significantly affecting various biogeochemical processes. Changes in stratification due to wind stress variations may be of particular significance based on the high number of biogeochemical processes directly tied to stratification. Changes in wind stress co-occurr= ing with coincidental changes in buoyancy fluxes could significantly change stratification. Buoyancy Flux Variations Buoyancy flux is the process that controls water column stratification directly and indirectly, affecting both across-shelf and along-shore current= s. Buoyancy flux processes include air/sea heat flux and river runoff. Buoyancy flux can occur either via local flux (e.g. air/sea heat flux) or by advective processes. Obviously, air/sea heat flux can affect all ocean area= s while the effects of runoff are in most cases limited to approximately the first 10 kilometers of the shelf. Changes in heat flux can occur because of processes that change insolation rates or evaporation. Wind speed and air/sea temperature differences are critical factors and both can change during climate shifts. Since mixing forces (wind) and stratification forces (heat flux and runoff) are often closely balanced, small changes in these factors can create large changes in the location of coastal fronts or shelf break processes. Runoff into coastal waters controls, along with winds and tides, the strength and extent of many coastal currents as well as stratification. The annual cycles in runoff obviously cause great variations in coastal currents and local stratification. Thus, any variation in runoff through damming or land-use can result in modifications of coastal currents and stratification. This can be quantified with realistic scenarios. Sea Level Change Recent analyses of projected sea level change due to global warming at selected sites around the globe suggest that there will be minimal to moderate impacts on the coastal states of the southern temperate zone. On centennial time scales, this could be more of a problem, but it does not appear to be a short-term issue. There could be some cases where coastal slope is very low and coastal fronts could move. To conclude, the potential impact of climatic changes upon marine ecosystems is difficult to assess due to the uncertainties in the nature and magnitude of the expected changes in the physical system. In particular, there are two major weaknesses in our understanding of potential changes in the physical environment that have implications for ecosystem changes. First, even though there is some level of consensus on globally averaged effects, there is considerably less agreement on the regional effects of climate change. Given the regional nature of most ecosystems, the importance of quantifying regional changes, on fisheries for example, is obvious. Secondly, there is considerable uncertainty concerning possible changes in the variability of the physical system (rather than its mean state), including the frequency of extreme events. This is also relevant to higher trophic level response. It has been demonstrated that recruitment success may be influenced by episodic events (e.g. storms) rather than by average conditions. Human activity can substantially influence the coastal atmospheric circulation through changes in land use patterns. For example, deforestation along the coast could increase surface temperature and decrease surface roughness, which would increase the onshore component of the winds. The modified atmospheric flow will then interact with the oceanic circulation (Pielke et al, 1991). A second example results through the emission of gases and particles to the atmosphere that are eventually deposited into coastal waters. When gases like SO2 and NOX are brought into the water through wet and dry deposition, the natural ecological balance may be altered (Pielke et al., 1990). Other human modifications to the environment may also be significant. Construction of many dams on rivers in the Americas has reduced freshwater and sediment input into the coastal zone. In contrast, some rivers may have higher runoff and sediment loads due to deforestation and other land use changes within undammed catchments. These changes need to be assessed independently for each river system. Only then can the net large-scale impacts on the open ocean be assessed. Decreases in freshwater and nutrients may impact fisheries, while decreases in sediment may cause coastal erosion and other changes on the shelf. Key Physical Processes in Oceanic Regions of the Americas The previous section discussed possible effects of climate change in generic terms. In this section, a tentative list of physical features of the America= n ocean margin is presented that might be affected by the climate changes discussed. As noted by O'Kane, et al., "The response of the boundary dynamics is an open question; that of living resources not well known and of ecological viability, excluding the effects of eutrophication, largely unknown. The response of the carbon cycle in the coastal zone remains controversial". Following is a list of possible responses adapted from O'Kan= e et al. Following each process is a list of the region in South America where the process occurs and a region in North America where similar processes have been studied. Eastern Boundary Process TYPE: LOCALE: Wind driven upwelling and downwelling Peru/Chile, California/Oregon Cross shore processes dependent on up/downwelling Peru/Chile, California/Ore= gon (meandering and filaments) Localized wind induced upwelling Costa Rica Dome, Pt. Arguello Western Boundary Processes TYPE: LOCALE: Separation of western boundary currents Brazil Current, Gulf Stream Confluence of boundary currents Malvinas/Brazil, Gulf Stream/Labrador Meandering processes Malvinas/Gulf Stream =46rontal instability processes Malvinas/Brazil, Gulf Stream/Labrador Boundary current/adjacent shelf interaction Malvinas/Brazil, Gulf Stream/Slope Sea Boundary current diapyncnal upwelling Brazil/Malvinas, Gulf Stream Subduction 18=B0 water formation in North Atlantic Bouyancy flux modification Malvinas, Gulf Stream Topographic Processes TYPE: LOCALE: Headland processes Geyer, Garrett, etc Canyon processes Monterey, others in Mid-Atlantic Topographic waves =09 Bouyancy Driven Coastal Currents TYPE: LOCALE: =09 Coastal Current Uruguay/Delaware,Maryland, Virginia =46reshwater inflows Rio de la Plata, Chesapeake Bay Mouth =09 =09 III. STUDY OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES The objectives of the Comparative Studies of Oceanic, Coastal and Estuarine Processes in Temperate Zones are: (a) to improve the knowledge of physical, ecological, biogeochemical and biogeomorphological processes, and (b) to develop new models to predict the impacts of continuing population growth, land use, resource exploitation and global change on the functioning of the ecosystems in the marine temperate zones of the Americas. To accomplish these objectives, it is suggested that the following areas of study should have priorities in research: 1. The Land-Sea Interface=09 The Land-Sea Interface (LSI) is dominated by external forces, both natural and anthropogenic. These forces are changing rapidly. We must understand the responses of the LSI to these forces. Several organizing principles should be taken into consideration: (a) It is imperative to understand the changes of inputs and outputs; (b) Special considerations should be taken to determine important time and space scales; (c) A systematic methodology to compare responses at different scales should be established; (d) Experimental approaches should be promoted; and (e) Modeling and research should be coupled. Many of the important questions concerning the impact of global change simply require extending existing research efforts and approaches to the southern hemisphere. For example: (1) What is the status of bay and estuarine populations in temperate South America? Are there unique anthropogenic inputs in these areas, or will the extensive research from North American estuaries provide useful models? (2) What are the trends in populations of commercially important species? Are fluctuations in population associated with climatic variation (e.g., influencing mortality of adults or successful recruitment of juveniles), or are changes largely a response to fishing efforts and local edaphic conditions? Other key questions to be addressed at both hemispheres are: (1) What is the mean state of the atmospheric and oceanic climate? (2) What are the typical scales of variability of the atmospheric and oceani= c climate? (3) What are the responses of coastal ecosystems to this variability? (4) What are the processes that control the variability of the atmospheric and oceanic climate and their interaction? (5) What are the interactions of these processes with socioeconomic systems and increasing human population? (6) How can the coastal zone processes be incorporated into predictive models? Specific issues regarding processes in the temperate zones that should be considered in IAI's research activities and programs are: (1) What are the net surface fluxes (heat, momentum, fresh water, greenhouse gases, etc.) in the coastal ocean, and their relation to global values? (2) What are the fluxes within the water column (vertical fluxes of biogenic particulate matter to the bottom sediment, horizontal fluxes along and across the shelf, vertical fluxes of dissolved substances to the surface lay= er, etc.) including the biochemical pathways of biogenic substances, and their recycling? (3) What are the geographic gradients in these processes? (4) What is the effect of river input as a source and fishery harvesting as = a sink in the budgets of biogenic and physical variables? How do changes in river input (dams, deforestation, etc.) and fisheries affect these budgets? (5) By region, what is the present circulation of the inshore region and its linkages to the shelf and ocean circulation? What are the interactions with land and atmospheric systems? (6) What is the coupling between the inshore benthic and pelagic ecosystems (transport of larvae and other early life stages of different species, including the commercially important ones)? (7) What are the processes that control sediment transport in the coastal zone? (8) What are the socio-economic impacts of global change on the inshore region? A ranking of the key physical parameters in terms of their vulnerability to human activity should be developed to assist policy makers. 2. Oceanic Processes The seas around southern South America are among the least known of the world's oceans. Historically the majority of ocean measurements have been made in the northern hemisphere. This lack of observations in the southern hemisphere directly impacts: (1) the current description of oceanic processes in the southern oceans, (2) our ability to test and/or validate numerical models of oceanic phenomena in the region, and (3) our ability to forecast future changes in the oceanic system due to climate and/or global change. Current and proposed satellite observing systems can help address our lack of knowledge in this region. However, since satellite systems can only sample a limited number of the required parameters, and cannot sample much below the surface, such systems do not provide a substitute for in situ observations from moorings, ships, buoys, etc. A variety of oceanographic processes are at work in the temperate waters of the Americas. If we are to understand the effects of global change on ecosystems, and ultimately on man, we must first understand these processes. Then, knowing the possible environmental changes, the effect on the process can be estimated. Once we know how the processes are affected we can estimate the impact on ecosystems. The discussion on ecosystems here is extremely limited and only a few topics have been addressed. Further input is required from regional scientists on effects of climate changes upon plankton populations (including effects of increased UV radiation due to ozone depletion), and changes in the biogeography of the temperate oceanic zones. =09 The geographic distribution of planktonic organisms may be affected by climate change. Various biogeographical provinces have long been recognized in both the Pacific and the Atlantic. They are characterized by differences in species composition and basic physical-chemical parameters. However, there is a great imbalance between distributions and inter-annual variability between the northern and southern temperate oceanic-zones of the Americas. One response of planktonic and other communities to climate change may be shifts in the boundaries of biogeographical provinces. However, our understanding of functional processes in planktonic communities is limited, reducing our ability to forecast other types of responses. As an example of the types of comparisons that need to be addressed under this topic, consider the difference between the western boundary currents of the Southern and Northern Atlantic. In the southwest Atlantic, in contrast to the Gulf Stream, the cold water flowing towards the equator, the Malvinas Current, is stronger in terms of velocity and transpor= t than the warm water flowing from the equator, the Brazil current. Until recently, very little was known about this system. Today we know that at theconfluence, cold and warm eddies are generated, and that there is variability in the northward penetration of the Malvinas Current. This variability is still not well characterized and even less is known about inter-annual variability. The continental shelves and neighboring boundary currents are often regions of significant fisheries with diverse species assemblages and great economic impact. In the South Atlantic, for example, the variability o= f the confluence influences the local distribution of nutrients that, in turn, influence the local fisheries. Satellite images show large concentrations of phytoplankton off the South American continental shelf from Tierra del =46uego to Uruguay. The Malvinas Current, which flows northward as a branch of the Circumpolar Current, is a major conduit for nutrients. The chlorophyll maximum appears to be located at the outer continental shelf, inshore of the nutrient maxima. Despite the clear economic and climatic importance of this region, we know little about variation in the transport strength, width and path of the Malvinas Current. A similar suite of differences exist between the two eastern boundary currents in the Pacific. Comparisons that examine the variation in specific features of these boundary currents should provide a much better predictive capability for the consequences of global climate changes. Understanding and anticipation of global climate change and its effects on oceanic ecosystems requires that we also define and understand the fundamental time scales of variability that characterize the natural systems. This is essential in order to distinguish natural variability from that produced by anthropogenic stress in the climate system due to the introduction of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. In some cases, other anthropogenic effects such as fishing may introduce further confounding effects in marine ecosystems. Natural climatic variability in the ocean an= d atmosphere occurring over time scales of several decades (inter-decadal) to several centuries (centennial scales) will either mask the anthropogenic change, acting as a buffer, or conversely, amplify effects of this change whenever it is of the same sign. The temperate ocean zones around the American continent include important commercial fisheries, which account for a significant proportion of total world catches. For instance, prior to its collapse, the anchoveta fishery off Peru was the largest single species fishery in the world in terms of weight. The effects of biomass removal via fishing upon the carbon budget of the oceans needs to be considered. A comparative approach may yield interesting insights into the various temperate ecosystems of the region. A series of thorough comparative studies would be extremely useful and should be sponsored by IAI. Here, only a few general characteristics of the ecosystems will be mentioned. The fish communities associated with the eastern boundary current systems off both North and South America have similar characteristics, sharing the same four major types of species (Bakun and Parrish, 1982). The life cycles of these populations seem to be closely tied to present environmental conditions, and much may be learned from a comparison of such strategies. Although the east coast of South America has obvious environmental differences with respect to the west coast ocean environments, the community of commercially important fish species has been found to be relatively similar to those of eastern boundary currents. One such similarity, for instance, is the relatively low number of major commercial fish species. In contrast, the fisheries off the east coast of North America seem to be composed of a larger number of species. The cause of such differences is not clear and should be examined further. Present day fish populations are subject to inter-annual variability in the oceanic environment which, in some cases, may be comparable to, or greater than, the changes expected as part of global changes in climate. For that reason, understanding the responses of fish and other organisms to recent environmental variability may help to predict potential responses to climate change. The effects upon fish populations of large scale oceanic and atmospheric processes such as El Ni=F1o-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) have received significant attention on the Pacific Coast = of the Americas (Smith, 1985). In contrast, the effects of such processes on fisheries in the Atlantic require future attention. Both the influence of ENSO via teleconnections and the effects of other processes such as the North Atlantic Oscillation need to be considered. One obvious potential response of a fish population to climate change is expansion or contraction of its range. These effects are likely to occur first near the extremes of a species or stock range. For that reason, the transitions between temperate and tropical or subpolar regimes are the regions where changes in the distribution of a temperate species may first be noticed. Sardines and anchovies account for a large proportion of the catches in eastern boundary currents. These species are notorious for undergoing considerable fluctuations in abundance (Lasker and MacCall, 1983), and considerable effort has been dedicated to determining whether such fluctuations are natural or due to over- fishing (Radovich, 1981). Traditionally, over fishing, inter-annual environmental variability, or a combination of both, have been blamed for the collapse of a fishery (e.g., the California sardine or the Peruvian anchoveta). However, studies based on fish scales from sediments off the west coast of North America suggest that these populations undergo natural fluctuations in abundance over time scales of decades and centuries (Soutar and Isaacs, 1974; Baumgartner et al, 1992). Furthermore, there seems to be an alternance between species, although the reasons for this are unclear (Daan, 1980). The effects of fishing may precipitate the decline of a population that is already decreasing, as well as delay its natural recovery (Baumgartner and Sautter, 1993). To date, fishery studies have been more successful at explaining changes in the distribution of a species than changes in abundance. Empirical correlations between fish recruitment and environmental conditions usually have not held up after additional data were incorporated (Skud, 1982). For that reason, a process-oriented approach has been proposed for elucidating possible associations between recruitment and the environment. An example of such an approach is the first US GLOBEC experiment proposed for the Georges Bank. The benefits of such an approach, however, remain to be proven. Furthermore, its applicability in areas for which there is not much background information, as for many of the temperate zones of South America, needs to be assessed. Some of the priority science issues concerning global change are processes associated with toxic algal blooms, pollution in coastal and shelf environments and the recruitment of juvenile fish into the fishable population. It is necessary to determine the role of large- scale variations such as radiation changes due to the ozone depletion in the Southern Hemisphere, on toxic algal blooms. The major larval mortality processes have been identified within the scope of SARP, but the time-space variability of these processes is unknown. Interpretation and use of the natural high-resolution proxy records must be carried out in conjunction with the retrospective analysis of existing data sets obtained through COADS and CalCOFI (California Cooperative Oceanic and Fisheries Investigations). These data provide direct observations for comparison and calibration of the proxy data in the better sampled regions of the oceans. Moreover, attention to and analyses of the existing historical oceanographic observations are critical for the development of more detailed histories and understanding of decadal scale variability. The data sets, together with theproxy information, provide the historical context needed for developing rational sampling designs for process studies to be carried under present climatic conditions. Inter-Decadal Change In Oceanic Ecosystems The description and understanding of the inter-decadal through centennial time scales require the integration of retrospective studies of both natural "high resolution" records of environmental variability and direct observations of ocean conditions and processes accumulated over the past century. Indirect records of inter-decadal and centennial climate and ecosystem variability are preserved in marine sediments deposited under anaerobic conditions of regional oxygen minima along the margins of the eastern Pacific and in enclosed silled basins on the continental shelf and slope. In order to adequately document the character of inter-decadal to centennial variability (Baumgartner et al, 1992), it is necessary to describe the history of natural variability over the past 2000 years. This length of records provides more than 20 occurrences of inter-decadal climatic episodes, providing insight into the wide range of possibilities of climatic states associated with inter-decadal change. Equally important are the major shifts between the longer period climate regimes of the past 2000 years identified as the Little Ice Age (Grove, 1988) and the Medieval Warm Period (Lamb, 1965;1982). The importance of these larger amplitude changes can be underscored by noting that natural changes of the same order as projected for 2x CO2 may occur almost as rapidly (e.g. the transition into the Medieval Warm Period, which took from approximately 950 to 1050) as predicted human-induced warmings. This long record also provides the additional perspective that the amount of global warming during the 20th century is measured from a baseline that began at the end of the Little Ice Age which lasted into the middle or latter part of the 19th century. 3. Economic and Social Impacts of Global Change Policy-makers require scientific information on global change, including the interaction between human societies and natural systems. Socio-economic issues include the rate of global change, anticipated physica= l and socio-economic impacts, and response options. Existing knowledge concerning rates of global change varies according to the coastal processes considered. Global circulation models predict that many important processes will change significantly in the future. Estuarine areas are very sensitive to global change. Human modifications including pollution may change systems radically in periods as short as a decade. Longer term changes due to processes such as sea level rise also occur. Therefore, society should be aware of time scales of less than a decade to more than a century in order to understand major aspects of global change in the LSI. At present, the healthiest estuaries are found in areas of low population density. This suggests that the most effective management policy to date is to prevent any change. Management by minimum modification is ultimately impractical. Given the growing coastal human population, this would suggest that estuarine health is expected to decline in the future. Instead, active estuarine management is essential and this would depend on improved scientific knowledge about specific estuaries. One of the key variables is human population pressure which, in turn, influences pollution levels and changes in land use. Other variables include changing runoff, sediments and dissolved material loadings and exchange with the neighboring shelf sea. As an example of the benefits of improved knowledge, better physical and ecological models of individual estuaries will allow the implications of the changes described above to be investigated in a quantitative fashion. This will aid the development of flexible management policies which take global change into account. By establishing the vulnerability of individual sites to global change, it will become possible to consider the balance of environmental protection, environmental enhancement and societal needs. Reconciling these competing interests always presents problems and will require interaction with the social sciences. For instance, the problem of evaluatio= n of market and non-market resources needs to be resolved. Human activity on or near coastlines contributes to pollution of the coastline and its ecosystems. This pollution contributes to lower water and air quality and hence, decreased quality of human life. While this impact may be most noticeable in estuaries and marshes, it can have adverse impacts on the entire ocean. Furthermore, human activity often ignores existing coastal hazards such as storms and shifting coastlines and destroys natural protective systems such as dunes. Destruction of natural protection provided by dunes and natural sea barriers leaves communities established in these areas more exposed to natural extreme phenomena such as hurricanes, tsunamis, and events associated with ENSO, for example. Improved scientific knowledge in all identified areas will increase our understanding of environmental vulnerability and our ability to manage coastal areas. For instance, sea-level rise tends to promote beach erosion which, in turn, threatens tourist and other coastal infrastructure. Existing models of beach erosion are based on system behavior (e.g. the Brum Rule). The shape of the profile relative to sea level is considered to = be invariant in time and cross-shore conservation of mass is applied assuming elevated sea level. Efforts toward improved system models and/or process- based approaches that consider the total sediment budget of the coastal zone would provide improved forecasts at shoreline position for coastal policy purposes. The utility of such predictions is most apparent in undeveloped locations where they provide guidance concerning appropriate building setbacks for future construction. Similar improved scientific understanding of many of the other parameters and processes already discussed will allow improved management. In particular, a better understanding of human system- natural system interactions--such as the ability to predict ENSO events-- will have many benefits for sustainable development of coastal resources. IV. UNDERLYING NEEDS As mentioned earlier in this report, the differing historical backgrounds of the various countries in the Americas call for a broad range of programs in order to adequately study the temperate coasts. One of the most important identified needs in Latin America is the recognition of the value of scientific work. This implies a socially appropriate salary and full-time dedication to research and university education. In addition, there is a need to keep national experts within the countries as well as to repatriate scientists working abroad. One example of what can be done is found in the Mexican case, in which a system linking salaries to productivity provides the means to increase the income of scientists. Improvement of physical and operational facilities (ships, libraries, data banks, and land-based sites for training and research) requires inventory of major available facilities. Such an inventory would assist in planning and implementation of research programs under the auspices of the IAI. Priorities should be given to existing institutions, rather than to the construction of new institutions. Within this limitation, sites for research in the LSI should be chosen based on utility for research on environmental change, rather than on political considerations. 1. Field Research A suite of activities is needed to address the gaps in our present knowledge and extend that knowledge into the future. These include routine data collection, intensive field surveys, application of analysis to= ols such as statistical and numerical models, and the development of material and human resources. In addition, data management systems and electronic communication networks are needed to provide maximum access to uniform quality data to a wide range of users. Data collection includes the construction of historical data sets from measurements presently existing at different institutions and monitoring of parameters relevant to global change at selected sites. Monitoring includes the continuation of present measurements and the initiation of new measurements of variables relevant to global change. Where possible, sites selected for future monitoring should be located near existing facilities and stations with historical measurements. These long time series will enable investigators to address questions of climatic and ecosystem variability at given locations. Field surveys, a more intensive form of data collection, are needed to choose sites for long term monitoring which are representative of the surrounding area. Field surveys are also needed to identify and study the detailed processes and mechanisms that relate the biological and physical components of the ecosystems to each other and to the external climatic forcing. IAI might develop common methodologies to allow adequate general training and comparison of results. As noted earlier, the southern oceans are not well observed, studied, or understood. Episodically, programs may improve observations in parts of the South Pacific, South Atlantic, or Indian Oceans, but there has been no sustained effort to increase the density of in situ observations. A first-order problem for IAI is to establish observation networks in the South Atlantic and Pacific Oceans that can be used for national, regional an= d global analyses. Experimental observation networks in northern hemisphere ocean basins currently use mixes of moored buoys, drifting buoys, ship-of- opportunity XBT/XCTD sections, research cruises, and satellite observations. In the southern oceans, the large geographical area, a modest number of shipping routes, limited availability of instrumentation and the size of the research fleet suggests that a low cost strategy is a necessity. This implies a very limited number of fixed buoys for high frequency time series in selected locations, seasonal or lower-frequency research cruises, 100 drifting buoys per year, several cross-basin ship-of-opportunity XBT/XCTD sections from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay, and improved access to remote satellite observations. Fixed buoy time series of physical, biological, and chemical parameters are a necessity to accomplish the following: (1) observe high frequency variability in dynamic boundary current systems, (2) provide observations to understand biogeochemical responses to changes in the physical forcing, and (3) validate satellite-based estimates of ocean temperature, productivity, gas exchange, and circulation. Process studies will require research cruises in selected regions. Such cruises are the only current way to obtain the spectrum of parameters needed to address ecosystem response to changeable physical forcing. Research cruises also provide a way to validate fixed and drifting buoys, and satellite observations. Drifting buoy deployment in each basin facilitates estimation of the surface flow, SST, and surface pressure fields. While 50 buoys in each basin will not provide mesoscale resolution fields, they will generate much needed measurements for models, satellite algorithm validation, and routine weather forecasting. Additional surface observations in the South Pacific should permit substantial improvement in weather forecasts for southern South America. Ship-of-opportunity sections permit a lower frequency (weekly to monthly) elucidation of changes in temperature and/or density in the upper ocean for several basin spanning sections. These sections are a cost- effective way to monitor indices of upper ocean heat content, gyre and boundary-current response to basin-scale changes in meteorological forcing, etc. Excellent ports in Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil facilitate su= ch programs. Finally, access to satellite-derived fields of SST, biomass, height, and surface wind stresses are a necessity for generating high quality descriptions of the current ocean "weather." Availability of these fields wi= ll provide immediate benefits for model validation and improvement, marine transportation routing, management and exploitation of fisheries, and understanding of coupled biogeochemical responses to surface forcing. 2. Modeling As mentioned earlier, given the need for predictive capability, the quantitative approaches should include both stochastic and mechanistic models. Stochastic models include methods of modern time series analysis, including multi-variate analysis, factor analysis, and canonical correlation analysis. Mechanistic models include numerical atmospheric, meteorologic, and oceanic circulation models within which ecosystem models can be imbedded. A better understanding of earth system processes will allow improvements in both statistical and mechanistic models of the coastal system; field surveys will also allow overall evaluation of the models. Models can then be used to focus further field surveys to better address unanswered questions. Finally, the models can be used initially to assess spatial and temporal variability around potential monitoring sites. The results of these model assessments and initial field surveys will be used to design an efficient monitoring network. Ultimately, the atmospheric, oceanic and hydrologic (land) submodels should be coupled into a single coastal systems model, possibly driven by a global ocean-atmosphere model. The large differences in data density and quality between the southern and northern hemispheres has already been mentioned. These differences are at least as large when considering the state of development of numerical models of atmospheric and oceanic circulation, and ecosystem response. Some well-developed models such as the UK's Fine Resolution Antarctic Model, Princeton's Cox model adapted to the South Atlantic, and University of Miami isopycnal models of the South Atlantic/South Indian Oceans have helped address some questions related to the large-scale circulation of part of the regions of interest to the IAI. None of these models, however, includes features related to climate or global variability, nor are these models coupled with the atmosphere. In addition to the need to develop or adapt models for the southern hemisphere regions, it is also noted that the necessary human resources for this endeavor may not be available in most of the countries in the region. There is also a need to present model results in a manner that can be useful to scientists from other disciplines (e.g., fisheries, resourc= e managers) and understandable by policy-makers. 3. Education and Training Consideration of human resources leads to questions of education and retention of expertise where it is most needed. At present there are more opportunities to educate and train individuals from regions where expertise in a subject is lacking, than there are opportunities for the individuals to find employment once they are educated. The IAI should encourage member nations to enhance those institutions which address global change-related issues, including increasing employment opportunities for returning graduates. Graduate student research at these institutions will benefit, further enhancing the impact of the original training. A second option to enhance the region's human resources is the establishment of "young scientist awards" consisting of 3-5 year grants for support of new Ph.D. researchers at universities and research centers. These would be awarded through peer reviewed competitive proposals and would include funding for necessary equipment, travel, etc., as well as a stipend. To further improve the capabilities to retain highly trained scientists, the IAI may consider encouraging the establishment of incentives based on academic productivity . A number of other activities in education should also be explored. Multi-disciplinary training should be encouraged at the graduate level, after a solid basis in at least one basic science field is establishe= d. Opportunities for updating knowledge and retraining and learning new fields should be offered to established scientists. Attempts to "balance" disciplinary strengths between regions should also be encouraged by exchanging scientists and students. A system should also be established for validating credit for courses taken in universities in the region. This wou= ld reduce the need to have one specialist in each field to teach the curriculum= . During the workshop, several means of education and training were identified: (a) Cooperative research programs which would involve both in-country and regional institutions (universities, government laboratories, etc). (b) Suggested modifications of graduate-level curricula would integrate social aspects of global change and break down present disciplinary boundaries, particularly at the graduate level. (c) Communication systems among institutions and among the individual scientists should be kept up-to-date (e.g. multi-media communication). (d) Visits and short-term courses offered by scientists with recognized expertise would aid in research and education. (e) Ongoing laboratory and field training should complement education by lectures. This opportunity should be made available to students, technicians, and junior scientists. (f) Regional meetings should take place on a regular schedule for research scientists and other educators.=09 (g) It is very important that educational campaigns exist to reach the entir= e spectrum of the population, ranging from kindergarten to senior citizens. (h) Institutions with specific expertise could develop a basic curricula for in-depth studies of their particular subject. The ocean processes component has specific and general needs in education and training. Generally, the various educational programs need long-term, stable support on the national level. Since ocean science education and training are typically an outgrowth of research efforts, this implies fostering stable research environments in the participant countries. Education and training can be enhanced through support of exchange visits, pre- and post-doctoral training opportunities in member IAI countries, and joint research projects. Review of the current gaps in ocean process capabilities suggests that numerical ocean modeling is weak in the IAI region. We recommend a program to establish a center (or centers) of excellence in ocean modeling as an IAI priority. This effort would focus on numerical ocean circulation modeling at the onset and then evolve to address coupled systems (ocean- atmosphere, ocean-land-atmosphere, ocean-biology, ocean-chemistry, etc.). The following mechanisms relating to education, training, and knowledge transfer have been proposed for IAI: (a) Joint regional workshops, to support coordination of research efforts conducted in different IAI countries on topics of regional priority. (b) On-the-job training, possibly through these mechanisms: l. Support for participation of researchers from IAI countries in joint field activities. 2. Support for short-term stays at other institutions for training purposes (i.e. to learn new research methods and technologies). 3. Awarding of a number of low-cost fellowships to enable the participation of young graduate students as trainees in IAI-funded projects. (c) Conducting short courses on topics of scientific priority. (d) Dissemination of the results of IAI-funded research projects among educational and research institutions, and decision- makers. (e) Encouraging the establishment of working partnerships between sister laboratories. (f) Supporting the exchange of professors among institutions of different countries for the purpose of teaching subjects of regional priority. (g) Exchange of university students, using these mechanisms: l. Encouraging student exchange programs that allow students to attend= other universities as non-degree students for a limited period of time= and receive academic credit for their studies and/or work (this type of exchange scheme is already allowed and recognized in several American universities). 2. Providing financial support for post-graduate studies in areas of IAI interest. (h) Providing advice for preparation of curricula of educational institution= s for the inclusion of global change-related subjects. The following IAI priority training areas are suggested: (a) Multi-disciplinary approach to global change research (interaction between disciplines, including social sciences); (b) The social and human aspects of global environmental change; (c) Large-scale (regional to basin scales) numerical ocean modeling of physical, chemical, biological, etc., parameters emphasizing interdisciplina= ry aspects; (d) The use of computer networks for data management, communication and manipulation of data; and (e) Use and interpretation of satellite images. Specific activities that could be carried out by IAI: (a) Designing a mechanism for continuous surveying of training needs among member countries; (b) Forming selection committees for the admission/incorporation of qualified students and/or scientists to any of the mechanisms mentioned in section (g)-1., above; (c) Developing (and/or advising governments on the development of) a program for the recruitment of national scientists working abroad, and for the retention of skilled researchers in their own countries as a way of reducing the "brain drain". Such a program could establish mechanisms for: l. the integration of scientists who have obtained post- graduate degrees abroad, in IAI-supported projects; and 2. the preparation and dissemination of a pool of information on job opportunities in IAI member countries. (d) The preparation of a data base with world-wide information on recently implemented post-graduate courses on global change. 4. Communications, Data and Information Management =09 The IAI is envisioned as a distributed research network throughout the Americas that will conduct and sponsor basic research on global change processes. The Institute will pursue the principles of scienti= fic excellence, international cooperation, and the full and open exchange of scientific information, relevant to global change. Achieving this goal will require careful management of data and information resulting from the observation program. IAI will encourage the production, documentation, and preservation of high quality, long-term data sets, data exchange standards, data access, and maintain the lowest possible cost of data for research purposes. IAI Communication Network Networks are very helpful in enabling scientists to rapidly exchange messages, to access on-line information about data availability, and to obtain sets of actual data. Electronic networking in Latin America and the Caribbean for exchange of data has been a subject of interest in the scientific community for some time and several network projects have been launched in the past few years. Some of these networks are now operational and others are still being implemented. Two initiatives, NSF and OAS, have helped to accelerate the implementation process in the past two years. Electronic communication provides a cost-effective way to mediate interactions between scientists on national, regional, and international scales. We recommend the establishment of electronic data networks (via Internet) as a high priority for the IAI. Today, it is routine= in many countries to exchange electronic mail, access remote compilations of data, access super-computing resources, etc. We believe establishment of affordable networks in the region connected with international networks will positively impact progress in understanding ocean processes in the southern oceans. Internet capabilities for the IAI member countries will also allow access to remote sensing systems and databases. What is the current status of connectivity? Severalresearch and academic institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean are already connected to the Global Internet Network (GIN). Others are in the process of being connected as part of the NSF and OAS projects, and are at different stages of development. Electronic mail, such as Bitnet and Omnet (now part of Internet) has been in operation since the late 1980s to facilitate international collaboration and access to data bases. Implementation of Omnet was straightforward, since it required just the telephone network, but it had limitations on the information to be transferred, such as limited ASCII and binary data files. Transferring graphics, images, and large data files can be done only by Internet, but the dedicated high speed communication network required makes its implementation expensive. =09 The goal is that each participating IAI country be connected to GIN through their main node. The next step is to link the research and academic institutions to the router at the main node. The IAI project supported by the Global Environmental Facility, GEF, (World Bank) should consider, within the training component, workshops and seminars to train people in the use of this facility as well as in data manipulation. Data Management Data and information management includes the means and mechanisms to acquire, process, analyze, document, validate, archive, access and disseminate the multi-disciplinary data needed to understand the scientific interactions of Earth processes on a global scale. It also inclu= des the management of information required by and resulting from derived analyses and products, models, simulations, forecasts, and observations. The existing, accessible environmental knowledge base in oceanic temperature zones is not adequate. This is due to a paucity of observation, lack of effective computerization of existing observations, and impediments to access to existing data. Thus we recommend (1) a program to make IAI member country ocean observations computer compatible and accessible, and (2) synthesis of all available observations in IAI member countries and other repositories. Data Quality Detecting long-term changes in the ocean requires precise measurements of many physical and chemical variables. In many cases these natural changes are of the same order of magnitude as the resolution of the present methods or instruments. In order to assure that the data being collected serves to establish a long-term, high- quality data set, it = is essential that state of the art methods, instruments, and techniques be available to the IAI scientific community. Various ongoing international scientific programs such as JGOFS, WOCE, etc., have addressed the data quality and uniformity problem. We recommend that this issue be given special attention within the IAI community as well as in the IAI goals. The IAI should establish a network of data management centers to collect and archive the ocean observations. These centers should also provide access to global data sets generated by other countries or organizations (e.g. NASA, ECMWF, NOAA/NMC, etc.). These centers would then be able to provide "one step" access for member scientists to national, regional, and global environment databases. However, in the near term, data currently held in the IAI region must be synthesized as part of a parallel effort. That is, the observations must be put into computer- compatible form, catalogued, and inventoried in an accessible, multi- parameter database, and made easily accessible to all interested scientists. Thus we recommend an early effort to develop an accessible ocean processes database for the region, as well as a catalog of available dataset= s and relevant metadata. The maintenance and regular update of such catalogs should be encouraged. Material resources include the platforms and sensors necessary to collect the data as well as the computational facilities needed for stora= ge, analysis and display of the final products. Above all, an increase in human resources is the key to advancing our understanding of global processes. What Kind of Data Do We Have? One necessary project is to prepare and share more information about the data holdings of laboratories, countries, and international collections of data. The goal should be to make a partial collection of suc= h information soon and then to add to this information later. The World Meteorological Organization has gathered information about data from many countries. NCAR has written information about what can be found in the WMO publications (and on floppy disk), and in other sources of information. Many datasets, especially for the U.S. and Canada, are described in the Master Directory, which is an on-line directory that is administered by the Goddard Laboratory of NASA. The data is described in a DIF format in this dataset catalog that can be reached on-line via Internet. It is recommended that we first gather brief descriptions about data in laboratories, and later integrate these descriptions into on-line systems. NCAR has a technical report about CD-Roms that are available; this report should be updated as part of this project. It is recommended that IAI should start a project to encourage laboratories to prepare lists of their datasets, along with a brief explanat= ion as needed. The level of detail is not to describe each XBT, but to say, for example, that 5000 XBTs have been taken over a period of 17 years. What Kind of Data Do We Need? A questionnaire has been prepared that asks laboratories to prepare information both about what data they have and what data they need. The response to these questions and statements of the data needs will help for necessary data gathering and exchange. Some types of data such as sea surface temperature and sea level pressure and winds are almost certain to be needed by all groups and we should plan to make these data available, probably on CD-Roms. A mechanism should be developed to improve access to space- based data, such as information products from NOAA's operational satellites and information from other agencies. Access to GIS capabilities and data sets should be available to all scientists. The current state of knowledge requires summarizing into a database. We suggest building on the format of the NOAA National Estuarine Inventory (NEI) to include the entire coastline of the Americas and to include other ecosystem types in addition to estuaries. This database should be structured and disseminated so that it is available to individual research scientists. The database should include GIS-based data within the coastal zone. Some Basic Data Needed in a Regional and World Data Center There are established global programs to collect data from some types of measurements. We should not develop new methods and formats under IAI to gather these data, but should use established procedures. Some of these standard types of data follow: (a) surface ship marine data (COADS dataset); (b) ocean station data (XBT, etc.); (c) drifting buoy data; (d) fixed buoy data (every hour or every 3 hours); (e) tide gauge data (every day and every month); and (f) coastal station data (SST, Meteorology data). Each nation needs to make certain that these types of data are submitted through the international exchange procedure. For surface ship marine data it is often possible to obtain more data by asking more merchant ships to cooperate. Sometimes not enough measurements are taken in a coastal area; merchant ships might be asked to take three or four observations within 300 km of shore. Data that has been gathered in global or regional data centers does not help local scientists unless they have easy access to it or can eas= ily obtain copies of the data. CD-Roms can be used to help distribute copies of the data to all groups that need them. Some of the data are already available on CD-Rom. Scientific groups have realized that some necessary measurements were not taken, and access to needed data often was not good. Some ways to help alleviate these problems might be: (a) methods of data management and communications might be =09 designed to help local scientific groups; (b) local meetings could be held. A few meetings within countries might be necessary to see how different organizations can help take more of the needed observations and share data. A meeting between ocean groups, atmospheric groups, merchant marine people, and navy or coast guard groups may help to develop solutions. =09 The concern often exists that the flow of data is a one-way flow from less developed countries to more developed ones, that local access to data is not improved, and that local capability to analyze data is not developed. In this program we hope to increase the access to data for all groups. For example, some data would be prepared on CD-Roms and then all groups could obtain communications if they have a connection to Internet. It has been noted that some developed countries take computers on ship cruises and often have the data calculations made and papers in preparation for journals by the time the ship returns to port. In developing countries this process takes longer. We should not expect scientists to exchange their data before they have had time to prepare a paper. A general rule is that scientists should have one or two years to prepare a paper before their data is exchanged. Also there should at least be proper acknowledgment when data prepared by other groups is used. A useful project may be to gather together selected time series of data that serve as indicators. For example, such a dataset could have some data series such as the following: (a) 30 to 50 years series of indicators for the Chile-Peru up-welling region= ; (b) data series for the California current that exist from about 1930. Also, related paleoclimate series for 2000 years will become available; (c) the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI); (d) selected precipitation series that relate to the SOI; and (e) selected tide gauge series. V. REFERENCES Bakun, A. and R. H. Parrish, 1982: Turbulence, Transport, and Pelagic Fish in the California and Per=FA Current System. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Inv= est. Reports, 23:99-112. Baumgartner, T., V. Ferreira-Bartrina, H. Schrader, and A. Soutar, 1985. A 20-Year Varve Record of Siliceous Phytoplankton Variability in the Central Gulf of California. Mar. Geol., 64:113-129. Baumgartner, T. and L. Sautter, 1992: Paleo-oceanographic and Long-Term Historic Evidence of Past Variability, In US GLOBEC Eastern Boundary Current Program, Report on Climate Change and the California Current Ecosystem, edited by D. Mackas, T. Strub, and J. Hunter, U.S. GLOBEC Report No. 7:44-49. Baumgartner, T. R., A. Soutar, and V. Ferreira-Bartrina, 1992: Reconstruction of the History of Pacific Sardine and Northern Anchovy Populations Over the Past Two Millennia From Sediments of the Santa Barbara Basin, Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Reports, 33:24.40. Bruland, K. W. 1980: Oceanographic Distribution of Cadmium, Zinc, Nickel, and Copper in the North Pacific. Earth and Planet. Sci. Letters, 47:176-19= 8. Byme, R., Michaelsen, J., and A. Soutar, 1979: Prehistoric Wlildfire =46requencies in the Los Padres National Forest: Fossil Charcoal Evidence from the Santa Barbara Channel. U.S. Forest Service Research Report, PSW- 47, 78 pp. Casey, R., A.L. Weinheimer, and C.O. Nelson, 1989: California El Ni=F1o's a= nd Related Changes of the California Current system from Recent and Fossil Radiolarian Records. In: D. H. Peterson (ed.), Aspects of Climate Variabil= ity in the Pacific and the Western Americas. American Geophys. Union, Geophysical Monograph, 55:85-92. Daan, N., 1980: A Review of Replacement of Depleted Stock by Other Species and the Mechanisms Underlying Such Replacement. Rapp. P. y. Reun. Cons. int. Explor. Mer, 177: 405-421. Dunbar, R. B., 1983. Stable Isotope Record of Upwelling and Climate From Santa Barbara Basin, California. In: J. Thiede and E. Suess (eds), Coastal Upwelling, The Sedimentary Record, Part B. Penum Press, N. Y. : 217-246. Grove, J. M., 1988: The Little Ice Age. Methuen, London, 498 pp. Holmgren-Urba, D. and T. R. Baumgartner, 1993: A 250-Year History of Pelagic Fish Abundances From the Anaerobic Sediments of the Central Gulf of California. Calif. Coop. Oceanic Fish. Invest. Reports, 34: 60-68. Lamb, H. H. 1965: The Early Medieval Warm Epoch and Its Sequel. Paleography, Paleoclimatology, Paleoecology, v. 1: 13-37. Lamb, H. H. 1982: Climate History and the Modern World. Methuen, London. 387 pp. Lange, C.B., S.K. Burke, and W.H. Berger, 1990: Biological Production Off Southern California Is Linked to Climatic Change. Climate Change, 16:310- 329. Lasker, R. and A. MacCall. 1983: New Ideas on the Fluctuations of Clupeoid Stocks off California, p. 110-120. In: Proceedings of the Joint Oceanographic Assembly 1982-General Symposia. Canadian National Committee on Oceanic Research, Ottawa. Pielke, R. A., W. A. Lyons, R. T. McNider, M. D. Moran, D. A. Moon, R. A. Stocker, R. L. Walko, and M. Uliasz, 1990: Regional and Mesoscale Modeling As Applied To Air Quality Models. In: Air Pollution Modeling and its Application VIII (H. van Dop and D. G. Steyn, ed.), Plenum Press, New York, 259-289. Pielke, R. A. G. A. Dalu, J. S. Snook, T. J. Lee and G. F. Kittel, 1991: Nonlinear Influence of Mesoscale Land Use On Weather and Climate. J. Clim., 4,1053- 1069. Radovich, J., 1981. The Collapse of the California Sardine Fishery--What Have We Learned? In: M. H. Glantz and J.D. Thompson, eds., Resource Management and Environmental Uncertainty. Wiley-Interscience, New York. Sautter, L.R. and R.C. Thunnel, 1991: Seasonal Variability in the D 18 O a= nd 13 C of Planktonic Foraminifera From an Upwelling Environment: Sediment Trap Results From the San Pedro Basin, Southern California, Paleoceanography, 6: 307-334. Skud, B. E. 1982: Dominance in Fishes: The Relation Between Environment and Abundance. Science., 216:144-149. Smith, P.E. 1985: A Case History of An Anti-El Ni=F1o Transition on Plankto= n and Distribution and Abundances. In: W. S. Wooster and D. L. Fluharty (eds.), El Ni=F1o North Effects in the Eastern Subarctic Pacific Ocean: 121= -142. Soutar, A. and P. Crill, 1977: Sedimentation and Climatic Patterns in the Santa Barbara Basis During the 19th and 20th Centuries. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bulletin, 88:1161-1172. Soutar, A. and J. D. Isaacs, 1974: Abundance of Pelagic Fish During the 19t= h and 20th Centuries As Recorded In Anaerobic Sediment of the Californias. =46ishery Bulletin, 72: 257-273. APPENDIX 1 IAI INITIAL SCIENTIFIC THEMES * The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems; * High Latitude Processes; * Ocean/Land/Atmosphere Interactions in the Inter-tropical Americas; * Tropical Ecosystems and Biogeochemical Cycles; * ENSO and Interannual Climate Variability; * The Comparative Studies of Temperate Terrestrial Ecosystems; * The Study of the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity. APPENDIX 2 ACRONYMS IGBP/START International Geosphere-Biosphere Program/System for =09 Analysis, Research and Training GIS Geographical Information System LSI Land Sea Interface GLOBEC Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics COADS Comprehensive Ocean and Atmospheric Data Set CalCOFI California Cooperative Oceanic and Fisheries =09 Investigations XBT/XCTD Expendable Bathythermograph/Expendable Conductivity =09 Temperature Depth SST Sea Surface Temperature GIN Global Internet Network NSF National Science Foundation OAS Organization of American States ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange GEF Global Environmental Facility JGOFS Joint Global Ocean Flux Study WOCE World Ocean Circulation Experiment ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts NASA National Aeronautic and Space Administration NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA/OGP NOAA/Office of Global Programs NOAA/NMC NOAA/National Meteorological Center NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research WMO World Meteorological Organization APPENDIX 3 WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS Luis Angel Cers=F3simo Secretar=EDa de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa C=F3rdoba 831 1054 Buenos Aires ARGENTINA Tel. (54 1) 311 3178 =46ax (54 1) 312 1482 Alberto Piola=09 SIHN Departamento de Oceanograf=EDa=09 Av. Montes de Oca 2124=09 1271 Buenos Aires=09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 212 918=09 =46ax (54 1) 217 797 =09 Ana Maria Gayoso=09 Instituto Argentino de Oceanografia =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 91) 23 555=09 =46ax (54 91) 553 933 =09 Monica Hoffmeyer=09 Instituto Argentino de Oceanograf=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 235 55=09 =46ax (54 1) 553 933 =09 Maria Cintia Piccolo =09 Instituto Nacional de Investigaci=F3n y Desarrollo Pesquero =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 517 818=09 =46ax (54 1) 517 442 =09 Jorge Marcovecchio=09 Instituto Nacional de Investigaci=F3n y Desarrolo Pesquero=09 Dept. Ambiente Marino =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 23) 517 818=09 =46ax (54 23) 517 442 =09 R. R. Kokot Universidad de Buenos Aires=09 Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Depto. de Geolog=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 =09 Carlos Rinaldi=09 Instituto Ant=E1rctico Argentino=09 Cerrito 1248=09 1010, Buenos Aires =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 812 1689=09 =46ax (54 1) 812 2039=09 S. C. Marcomini=09 Universidad de Buenos Aires=09 Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, Depto. de Geolog=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 Eduardo Ban=FAs=09 Comisi=F3n Nacional para el Cambio Global=09 Av. Cordoba 831, Piso 1, Buenos Aires1054 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 312 1482=09 =46ax (54 1) 312 1482 =09 Jorge Codignotto=09 Universidad de Buenos Aires =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 982 6670=09 =46ax (54 1) 982 4494 =09 Alberto Ford =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 954 1011 ext. 744=09 =46ax (54 1) 951 1100 =09 Mariana Framinan =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09 =46ax (54 1) 217 797 =09 Elvira Gentile=09 IAI Newsletter=09 Av. Montes de Oca 2124=09 1271 Buenos Aires =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 217 576=09 =46ax (54 1) 303 2299=09 70501.2436@compuserve.com=09 Daniel Collazo=09 Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente =09 ARGENTINA=09 =09 Maria Paula Etala=09 Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (541) 312 5001 ext. 2533=09 =46ax (541) 311 2459 =09 Alejandro Bianchi=09 Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval=09 Depto. de Oceanograf=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09 =46ax (54 1) 217 797 =09 Hector Petit=09 Universidad de Buenos Aires=09 =46acultad de Filosof=EDa y Letras, Instituto de Geograf=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 756 0738=09 Nestor Lanfredi=09 Laboratorio de Oceanografia Costera y Estuarios=09 Casilla de Correo 45 1900 La Plata=09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 527 945=09 =46ax (54 1) 530 189 =09 =46ederico Isla=09 Centro de Geolog=EDa de Costas y del Cuaternario =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 23) 727 144=09 =46ax (54 23) 728 297 =09 Gerardo M.E. Perillo=09 Instituto Argentino de Oceanograf=EDa=09 Depto Geolog=EDa Marina =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 91) 235 55=09 =46ax (54 91) 553 933 =09 Eduardo Rodriguez=09 SIHN Departamento Oceanograf=EDa =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 213 091=09 =46ax (54 1) 217 797 =09 Ramiro P. S=E1nchez Instituto Nacional de Investigaci=F3n y Desarrollo Pesquero=09 Pesquer=EDa Pel=E1gicas =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 23) 514 285=09 =46ax (54 23) 517 442 =09 Carlos Urien=09 Centro Oceanogr=E1fico Buenos Aires=09 Instituto Tecnol=F3gico Buenos Aires =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (54 1) 311 6624=09 =46ax (54 1) 342 5437 =09 Guillermo Verazay Comisi=F3n T=E9cnica Mixta del Frente Maritimo=09 Secretario Administrativo =09 ARGENTINA=09 Tel. (5982) 962 773=09 =46ax (5982) 961 578 =09 Alfredo Yung=09 Servicio de Hidrograf=EDa Naval =09 ARGENTINA=09 Hector Atilio Poggiese=09 =46LACSO (Programa Argentino)=09 =46acultad Latinoamericana =09 ARGENTINA=09 Ricardo Ayup-Zuain=09 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul=09 Instituto de Geoci=EAncias =09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 51) 336 9822=09 =46ax (55 51) 336 5011 =09 Renato Herz=09 Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09 Instituto Oceanogr=E1fico =09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 11) 210 4311 ext. 6582=09 =46ax (55 11) 210 3092 =09 Luiz Martins=09 =46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande =09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 51) 336 9822 =09 =46ax (55 51) 336 5011 =09 Luis Bevilacqua=09 Instituto de Matem=E1tica Pura e Aplicada (IMPA) Estrada Dona Castorina, 110 Jardim Bot=E2nico, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 22460-320 BRAZIL Tel. (55 21) 294 9447 =46ax (55 21) 512 4115 =09 =46rederico Pereira Brandini=09 Universidade Federal do Paran=E1=09 Centro de Estudos do Mar=09 Pontal do Sul, Paranagu=E1, PR 83255-00=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 41) 455 1333=09 =46ax (55 41) 455 1105 =09 =09 =46ernando D'Incao=09 =46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande=09 =46aculdade de Ensino e Pesquisa =09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 532) 323 659 =46ax (55 532) 323 659=09 doccarci.at.br.furg.bitnet=09 Clarisse Odebrecht=09 =46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande (FURG)=09 Departamento de Oceanograf=EDa=09 P.O. Box 474=09 96201-900 Rio Grande-RS=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 53) 232 9122 ext. 21=09 =46ax (55 53) 232 8510=09 doclar@br.furg.bitnet =09 Izabel Gurgel=09 Departamento de Oceanografia da UERJ=09 Rua S=E3o Francisco Xavier, 524/4 andar Maracan=E3 20559-900, Rio de Janeiro-RJ BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 21) 284 8322 ext. 2689=09 =46ax (55 21) 284 5033 =09 Afranio R. de Mesquita=09 Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09 Instituto Oceanogr=E1fico=09 Caixa Postal 9075, S=E3o Paulo, SP=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 123) 813 3222 ext. 23 1=09 =46ax (55 123) 211 4422=09 Jorge Pablo Castello =46unda=E7=E3o Universidade do Rio Grande (FURG)=09 Departmento de Oceanografia=09 PO Box 474, Rio Grande, RS 96201-900=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 532) 329 122 ext. 32=09 =46ax (55 532) 32 8510 =09 Daniel Joseph Hogan=09 Universidade Estadual de Campinas N=FAcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas Ambientais 13081 Campinas, SP =09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 192) 397 690=09 =46ax (55 192) 397 690 =09 Edmo J. D. Campos=09 Universidade de S=E3o Paulo -IOUSP/DOF Pra=E7a Oceanogr=E1fica, 191=09 Cidade Universitaria=09 S=E3o Paulo, SP 05508-900=09 BRAZIL=09 Tel. (55 11) 210 4311 ext. 6584=09 =46ax (55 11) 210 3092 =09 Belmiro Castro=09 Universidade de S=E3o Paulo=09 Instituto de Oceanografia =09 BRAZIL =09 Tel. (55 11)210 3092 =09 Luis Roberto Martin=09 Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)=09 Centro de Estudos de Geologia Costeira e Oceanogr=E1fica (CECO)=09 BRAZIL =09 Tel. (55 51) 336 5011=09 Silvio Guido Marinone =09 The University of British Colombia=09 Department of Oceanography=09 6270 University Blvd.=09 Vancouver, B.C.=09 CANADA Tel. (604) 822 4297=09 =46ax (604) 822 6091 =09 Mohammed El-Sabh=09 Centre Oceanographique de Rimouski=09 Departement d'Oceanography =09 CANADA=09 Tel. (418) 724 1707=09 =46ax (418) 724 1842 =09 Vivi=E1n Montecino=09 =46acultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile=09 Departamento de Ciencias Ecol=F3gicas=09 Casilla 653 Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 271 2977=09 =46ax (56 2) 272 7363=09 Jos=E9 Eduardo Sanhueza=09 Instituto de Ecolog=EDa Pol=EDtica=09 Casilla 16784-Correo 9, Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 274 6191=09 =46ax (56 2) 223 4522 =09 Patricio Arana=09 Universidad Cat=F3lica de Valparaiso=09 Escuela de Ciencias del Mar, Casilla 1020, Valparaiso=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 032) 281 867=09 =46ax (56 032) 281 870 =09 Jos=E9 Rutllant=09 Universidad de Chile Departamento de Geof=EDsica=09 Blanco Encalada 2085, Casilla 2777, Santiago=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 2) 696 8790=09 =46ax (56 2) 696 8686=09 jrutllan@uchcecvm.cec.uchile.cl =09 Jos=E9 Stuardo=09 Universidad De Concepci=F3n=09 Barrio Universidad Casilla 156-C, Concepci=F3n=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 41) 242 465=09 =46ax (56 41) 242 546 =09 Tarcisio Antezana=09 Universidad de Concepci=F3n=09 Departmento de Oceanograf=EDa=09 P.O. Box 4010, Concepcion=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 41) 234 985 ext. 2345=09 =46ax (56 41) 240 280 =09 Hellmuth A. Sievers=09 Universidad de Valparaiso=09 Instituto de Oceanolog=EDa=09 Casilla 13-D, Vi=F1a del Mar=09 CHILE=09 Tel. (56 32) 833 214=09 =46ax (56 32) 833 214 =09 Wolfgang Scherer=09 Comisi=F3n Oceanogr=E1fica Intergubernamental=09 =46RANCE=09 Tel. (33 1) 456 84042=09 =46ax (33 1) 405 69316=09 w:scherer, GOOS Paris =09 =46rancisco Ocampo T=F3rres=09 CICESE=09 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada Km. 107 =09 Ensenada, Baja California=09 MEXICO=09 Tel. (52 667) 442 00 ext. 4011=09 =46ax (52 667) 451 54 =09 Timothy Baumgartner=09 CICESE=09 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada Km 107=09 Apdo. Postal 2732, Ensenada, Baja California=09 MEXICO=09 Tel. (619) 534 2171=09 =46ax (619) 534 7641=09 tbaumgartner@cicese.mx=09 Victor Camacho Ibar=09 Universidad Autonoma de Baja California Apartado Postal 423 Ensenada, B.C.=09 MEXICO=09 Tel. (52 617) 451 54=09 =46ax (52 617) 446 01=09 Mar=EDa Ana Escofet =09 CICESE Km. 103 Carretera Tij.-Ensenada Ensenada, B.C. MEXICO=09 Tel. (52) 617 667 =46ax (52) 617 667 =09 Sa=FAl Alvarez Borrego=09 CICESE=09 Dept. de Ecolog=EDa, Divisi=F3n de Oceanolg=EDa=09 Carretera Tijuana-Ensenada Km. 107=09 Ensenada, Baja California=09 MEXICO=09 Tel. (52 667) 450 50 ext. 4090=09 =46ax (52 667) 451 54=09 Roberto Mill=E1n Nu=F1ez UABC =09 =46acultad de Ciencias Marinas Apartado Postal 423, Ensenada, B.C.=09 MEXICO=09 Tel. (52 617) 445 70=09 =46ax (52 617) 441 03 =09 Silvia Ibarra =09 CICESE Depto. Ecolog=EDa Divisi=F3n de Oceanolog=EDa Carretera Tij-Ensenada, Km 107=09 MEXICO=09 Tel. (52 617) 442 00=09 =46ax (52 617) 451 54 =09 Manuel Vegas V=E9lez=09 Comisi=F3n Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa=09 Coordinador del Comit=E9 =09 PERU=09 Tel. (51 14) 428 948=09 =46ax (51 14) 428 951 Carlos Eduardo Ere=F1o=09 Agregado Naval a la Embajada Argentina=09 Av. Pardo y Aliaga, Piso 12=09 San Isidro, Lima =09 PERU=09 Tel. (541) 217 576=09 =46ax (541) 303 2299 =09 Hector Soldi=09 Direccion de Hidrograf=EDa y Navegaci=F3n=09 Gamarra 500, Chucuito Callao=09 PERU=09 Tel. (51 14) 297 564=09 =46ax (51 14) 652 995=09 omnet toga.peru=09 Pablo Lagos=09 Instituto Geof=EDsico del Per=FA =09 Apartado 3747=09 Lima 100=09 PERU=09 Tel. (51 14) 752 996=09 =46ax (51 14) 370 258=09 plagos@gateway.omnet.com =09 Balbino J. Alvarez=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo =09 URUGUAY =09 Luis Anastasia=09 Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente Divisi=F3n de Ecosistemas Costeros =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 963 954=09 =46ax (59 82) 965 182 =09 Mario Bidegain=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ciencias=09 Trist=E1n Narvaja 1674=09 Montevideo, 11200 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 416 771=09 =46ax (59 82) 409 973=09 Daniel Panario=09 Departamento de Geograf=EDa =46acultad de Ciencias Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (598 2) 715 2 78=09 =46ax (598 2) 715 4 46 =09 Magdalena Blanco=09 Grupo de Estudio de la Din=E1mica de los Oc=E9anos y la Atm=F3sfera=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 Av. 18 De Julio 1968=09 2o Piso Montevideo=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (598 2) 715 278=09 =46ax (598 2) 715 446 =09 Carlos Serrentino=09 Direcci=F3n Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (598 2) 405 655=09 =46ax (598 2) 497 391 =09 =09 Mario Caffera=09 Direcci=F3n Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa=09 =46acultad de Ingenier=EDa=09 Trist=E1n Narvaja 1674=09 Montevideo 11200=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09 =46ax (59 82) 715 446 =09 Gabriel Cazes=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ingenier=EDa =09 URUGUAY =09 Daniel de Alava=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ciencias =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 965 133=09 =46ax (59 82) 965 132 =09 Alejandro Dellepere=09 Comisi=F3n de Tecnolog=EDa Nuclear=09 Lab. Hidrolog=EDa Isot=F3pica e Ing. Ambiental =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 906 919=09 =46ax (59 82) 921 619 =09 Jorge Dotta Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores=09 Servicio Exterior =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 917 122=09 =46ax (59 82) 921 327 =09 Carlos Fern=E1ndez Jauregui=09 UNESCO =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 772 023=09 =46ax (59 82) 772 023 =09 Mario Fontanot=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo =09 URUGUAY =09 Tel. (59 82) 960 331 =09 Ernesto Forbes=09 SOHMA =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 393 861=09 =46ax (59 82) 399 220 =09 Bernabe Gadea=09 Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 960 788=09 =46ax (59 82) 399 220 =09 Silvana Giordano=09 CIID =09 URUGUAY =09 Mar=EDa Ofelia Guti=E9rrez=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica-UNCIEP=09 =46acultad de Ciencias =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 416 771=09 =46ax (59 82) 409 973 =09 Hugo Lobato=09 Direcci=F3n Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 409 973=09 =46ax (59 82) 409 973 =09 Jorge L=F3pez Laborde=09 SOHMA =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 393 775=09 =46ax (59 82) 399 220 =09 Gabriela P. Mantero=09 INAPE =09 URUGUAY Tel. (59 82) 404 698=09 =46ax (59 82) 413 216=09 Annie Hareau=09 Inciativa del Cono Sur=09 Instituto Manuel Oribe=09 Edil Hugo Prato 2197=09 Montevideo CP 11200=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (598 2) 488 248=09 =46ax (598 2) 487 037 Carlos Orlando =09 Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores =09 Montevideo=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (598 2) 901 243=09 =46ax (598 2) 921 327 =09 =09 Enrique Mart=EDn Del Campo=09 UNESCO-ORCYT =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 772 021=09 =46ax (59 82) 772 140 =09 Maria Severina Navarrete=09 Ministerio de Vivienda Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 32) 965 133=09 =46ax (59 32) 965 132 =09 Hubert Nion=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 Divisi=F3n Evaluaci=F3n de Pesquer=EDas =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 492 777=09 =46ax (59 82) 413 216 =09 Juan Oribe Stemer=09 Comisi=F3n T=E9cnica Mixta de Frente Mar=EDtimo =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 961 973=09 =46ax (59 82) 961 578 =09 Juan Carlos Perdomo=09 SOHMA=09 Divisi=F3n de Meteorolog=EDa Aplicada =09 URUGUAY =09 Orestes Pereyra=09 SOHMA =09 URUGUAY =09 Ismael Piedracueva=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ingenier=EDa =09 URUGUAY =09 Gustavo Pineiro=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ciencias =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 415 923=09 =46ax (59 82) 409 973 =09 Gabriel Pisciottano IMFLA Fl Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ingenier=EDa=09 J. Herrera y Reissig 565=09 11300 Montevideo=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09 =46ax (59 82) 715 446=09 cliol@imfial.edu.ay=09 Adriana Jorajuria=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ciencias=09 Trist=E1n Narvaja 1674=09 Montevideo, 11200=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 409 973=09 =46ax (59 82 )409 973 =09 Jos=E9 Luis Genta=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ingenier=EDa INFIA=09 Av. 18 De Julio 1968 2oPiso=09 Montevideo=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 710 361=09 =46ax (59 82) 715 446=09 Cli01@Imfia.edu.uy =09 Guillermo Ramis=09 Direccion Nacional de Meteorolog=EDa=09 Casilla de Correo 64, Montevideo =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 405 655 =46ax (59 82) 497 391 =09 Hugo Roldos=09 Servicio de Oceanograf=EDa, Hidrograf=EDa y Meteorolog=EDa =09 URUGUAY =09 Andr=E9s Saizar=09 Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente Ecosistemas Costeros y Marinos =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 965 133=09 =46ax (59 82) 965 132 =09 Dimitriy Severov=09 SHOMA=09 INAPE/Instituto Nacional de Pesca =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 492 333=09 =46ax (59 82) 492 333 =09 Jos=E9 S.J. Squadroni=09 Universidad Cat=F3lica del Uruguay=09 Asesor de Rectoria =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 472 717=09 =46ax (59 82) 470 323 =09 Ignacio Stolkin=09 Universidad de la Rep=FAblica=09 =46acultad de Ciencias=09 Av. 18 De Julio 1968=09 2=B0 Piso Montevideo=09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 413 910=09 =46ax (59 82) 409 973 =09 Diego V=E1zquez Melo=09 Ministerio de Ganader=EDa, Agricultura y Pesca=09 Asesor de Secretar=EDa MGAP =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 392 219=09 =46ax (59 82) 320 74 =09 Carlos Vera Instituto Ant=E1rtico Uruguayo=09 Asesor T=E9cnico/Jefe de Proyecto =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 986 330=09 =46ax (59 82) 921 619 =09 Ricardo Dupont=09 SOHMA =09 URUGUAY=09 Tel. (59 82) 393 861=09 =46ax (59 82) 399 220 =09 James L. Buizer=09 NOAA Office of Global Programs=09 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910=09 USA=09 Tel. (301) 427 2089=09 =46ax (301) 427 2082=09 buizer@ogp.noaa.gov =09 Lisa Farrow=09 NOAA/OGP=09 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1225=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910 =09 USA=09 Tel. (301) 427 2089=09 =46ax (301) 427 2073=09 farrow@ogp.noaa.gov =09 Rub=E9n Lara =09 IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09 1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Tel. (301) 589 5747=09 =46ax (301) 589 5711=09 lara@ogp.noaa.gov =09 Raquel S. Gomes IAI Office of the Executive Scientist=09 1100 Wayne Ave., Suite 1201=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910 USA Tel. (301) 589 5747=09 =46ax (301) 589 5711 Sergio A. Navarrete=09 Oregon State University=09 Department of Zoology=09 Corvallis, OR 97331-2914 =09 USA=09 Tel. (503) 737 5359=09 =46ax (503) 737 0501=09 navarres@bcc.orst.edu =09 Guillermo Pablo Podesta=09 Rosentiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science=09 University of Miami RSMAS/MPO=09 4600 Rickenbacker Cswy.=09 Miami, FL 33149=09 USA=09 Tel. (305) 361 4142=09 =46ax (305) 361 4622=09 gui@banana.rsmas.miami.edu (Internet) or podesta@miami.rsmas.miami.edu =09 Otis Brown=09 University of Miami=09 Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science=09 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway=09 Miami, FL 33149=09 USA=09 Tel. (305) 361 4018=09 =46ax (305) 361 4622 =09 Ted Strub =09 College of Oceanic and Atmospheric Sciences Ocean Admin. Bldg. 104=09 Oregon State University=09 Corvallis, OR 97331 USA=09 Tel. (503) 737 3015=09 =46ax (503) 737 2064=09 pts@osuvax.oce.orst.edu =09 Gene Rosenberg=09 National Museum of Natural History=09 Division of Botany NHB 166=09 10th & Constitution Ave., NW=09 Washington, D.C. 20560=09 USA=09 Tel. (202) 483 7485=09 =46ax (202) 786 2563 =09 Lino Gallo=09 Technology Enterprises=09 5514 Alma Lane, Suite 400=09 Springfield, VA 22151=09 USA=09 Tel. (703) 537 0743=09 =46ax (703) 642 5595 =09 Stephen V. Smith=09 University of Hawaii=09 Department of Oceanography=09 1000 Pope Road MSB 307=09 Honolulu, HI 96822=09 USA =09 Tel. (808) 956 6751 =09 Jeff McQueen=09 NOAA/ARL SSMC III, Rm.# 3464=09 1325 East-West Hwy.=09 Silver Spring, MD 20910=09 USA=09 Tel. (301) 713 0295=09 =46ax (301) 713 0119 =09 Richard Valigura=09 NOAA/ARL SSMC III, Rm 3229=09 1315 East-West Hwy.=09 Silver Spring, MD. 20910=09 USA=09 Tel. (301) 713 0295=09 =46ax (301) 713 0119=09 rich@arlrisc.ssmc.noaa.gov=09 Larry Atkinson=09 Old Dominion University=09 Oceanography Department=09 CCPO Crattenoton Norfolk, Virginia 23529=09 USA=09 Tel. (804) 683 4926=09 =46ax (804) 683 5550=09 atkinson@ccpo.odu.edu=09 Roy Jenne=09 NCAR P.O. Box 3000 Boulder, CO 80303 =09 USA=09 Tel. (303) 497 1215=09 =46ax (303) 497 1137=09 Jenne@ncar.ucar.edu =09 Alberto Lonardi=09 Organizacion de Estados Americanos=09 Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnolog=EDa=09 OAS 1889 F. St., NW=09 Washington, D.C. 20006=09 USA Tel. (202) 458 3339=09 =46ax (202) 458 3167 =09 Robert Nicholls=09 University of Maryland=09 Department of Coastal Research=09 College Park, MD 20740 =09 USA=09 Tel. (301) 405 4060=09 =46ax (301) 314 9299=09 rn23@umail.umd.edu =09