Title : Environmental Assessment of USAP Food Waste Management Type : Antarctic EAM NSF Org: OD / OPP Date : January 5, 1994 File : opp94016 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE U.S. ANTARCTIC PROGRAM'S MANAGEMENT OF FOOD AND FOOD-RELATED WASTES AT MCMURDO STATION, ANTARCTICA FOR 1993-1996 Prepared by the Office of Polar Programs National Science Foundation Washington, D.C 1.0 PURPOSE AND NEED NSF is responsible for the U.S. Antarctic Program (USAP) that supports a substantial scientific research program in Antarctica, often in cooperation with other countries. The USAP maintains three year-round stations in Antarctica: McMurdo Station on Ross Island, the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, and Palmer Station on the Antarctic Peninsula. McMurdo Station is the major base for providing logistics support to scientific and operational personnel working at McMurdo and South Pole and at numerous scientific field camps on the continent each austral summer. Logistic and operational support are provided by the Department of Defense [the Naval Support Force Antarctica (NSFA), U.S. Army, and U.S. Air Force], the U.S. Department of Transportation [U.S. Coast Guard], and a civilian contractor [currently Antarctic Support Associates, Inc. (ASA)]. The National Science Foundation (NSF) proposes to establish a food waste management program at McMurdo Station, Antarctica, from 1993 to 1996 through disposal of small volumes of liquid food wastes, volume reduction, temporary storage, and retrograde of food and food-related wastes from the Antarctic. Food is imported to McMurdo Station by air or on the annual supply ship. The food is procured in the United States and New Zealand. Food wastes originate in the galley and consist of food preparation wastes, plate scrapings, food scraps, perishable foods and cooking oil/lard. Food-related wastes include cardboard, food wrappers, napkins, and low density polyethylene plastic films which contain food residues. Food and food-related wastes average 100 tons per year which is similar to the quantity produced by a U.S. town of 600 people. On December, 30, 1992, NSF completed an environmental assessment of the USAP's management of food wastes and food-related wastes at McMurdo Station, Antarctica which covered food waste management through June 30, 1995. Based upon the December 1992 assessment, NSF decided to dispose of food and food- related waste in a three-chambered, emissions controlled incinerator system ("interim incinerator"), dispose of limited amounts of ground food waste through the domestic wastewater system, and to retrograde (i.e., remove) a portion of accumulated food and food- related waste by ship to the United States. Because certain incinerator emissions monitoring data were unavailable at the time the decision was rendered, NSF decided to re-evaluate the December 30, 1992 decision to incinerate after receipt of these data. On January 22, 1993, NSF published notice of the December 1992 environmental assessment in the Federal Register inviting public comments for a 30-day period. NSF received written comments on the assessment from the Environmental Protection Agency, Greenpeace, and the Environmental Defense Fund. These comments, and NSF's responses, are attached hereto. The comments have been assigned numbers and NSF's responses correspond to those numbers. Subsequently, NSF halted incineration while it further reviewed options for disposal of food and food-related wastes. On June 14, 1993, the Director of the Office of Polar Programs announced that incineration of the food waste at McMurdo Station was no longer the proposed action. Although the proposed action is to remove most food wastes from the Antarctic for disposal, this assessment also addresses alternative food disposal options including incineration, open burning, or ocean dumping in Antarctica. This environmental assessment incorporates responses to comments received by NSF on the December 1992 assessment, the newly received incinerator emissions monitoring data, and additional information developed by NSF. This assessment, prepared pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act, CEQ and NSF regulations, and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty ("Protocol), is intended to aid the agency and the public in understanding the environmental consequences if NSF were to implement the proposed action for retrograding food and food-related wastes from Antarctica. 2.0 BACKGROUND NSF recognizes the importance of protecting the environment in its waste minimization, management and disposal plans. USAP has taken significant steps towards revising its operations to be environmentally sensitive and towards correcting environmental problems inherited from earlier times. Its recent significant efforts include the USAP's Environmental Protection Agenda (NSF 1988), NSF's 1989 Five Year Initiative for Antarctic Safety, Environmental and Health, a 1990 Interagency Agreement for a comprehensive waste management study, NSF's 1991 Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (SEIS) on the Antarctic Program, as well as specific environmental documents recently prepared in connection with food waste management and disposal at McMurdo. 2.1 USAP's Environmental Protection Agenda A significant portion of the USAP's logistic and scientific research activities at McMurdo Station focus on the supply of needed materials and the handling and processing or disposal of materials that no longer have a use in on-site program support: wastes, in general. The USAP, under the NSF's Special Five-Year initiative for Antarctic Safety, Environment and Health, has made substantial progress in changing the way it manages wastes. See infra at 2.2. The effort at effecting such change was first articulated formally in USAP's Environmental Protection Agenda (NSF 1988). The Agenda called for appraisal of waste production and management at McMurdo Station, with a focus toward development of minimal-impact waste management systems as well as monitoring and identification of potential impacts of waste processing and disposal procedures. The Agenda recognized solid waste as the most visible, and seemingly one of the least tractable, of antarctic environmental management problems. Ice, cold, and geological setting make ground disposal difficult. Antarctica's unique value to science makes ground disposal undesirable as well. Also, in 1987 USAP adopted a policy precluding ice staging and ocean dumping of solid wastes or any toxic or hazardous wastes or substances. The USAP has achieved increasingly extensive retrograde (i.e., removal) of such solid waste categories as metal scrap, old vehicles, pipe and tubing, broken tools, wiring, batteries, tires, and construction materials and debris. Management of food and food-related wastes at McMurdo presents unique challenges. Because of their inherent health risk and rapid decay properties, food-related wastes remain a problem for USAP in developing and implementing appropriate processing methods. Food-related wastes cannot be rinsed or cleaned and managed like other waste types due to the presence of food scraps or residues. At the time of the Agenda's publication, food wastes generated at McMurdo Station were burned outdoors and feasible, practical and environ- mentally-compatible technologies had neither been tailored, nor proven, for effective use in the Antarctic. 2.2 NSF's Special Five-Year Initiative for Antarctic Safety, Environment and Health and Implementation The Initiative In Fiscal Year 1989, the NSF instituted a major, multi-year Safety, Environment, and Health Initiative. The goals of the Initiative, now in its fifth year, continue to be: ùSafety: to achieve year-round operations in the Antarctic with modern technology and acceptable risk; ù Environment: to clean up the debris of past operations, and to bring present operations into agreement with current regulations, prevailing attitudes, and current technology; ùHealth: to improve medical facilities and to provide field parties with safety experts who have medical training. Implementation of the Initiative Under the environmental component of the Initiative, NSF has undertaken a variety of projects, including: ùWastewater Treatment and Outfalls. The discharge of raw sewage and other wastewater into the ocean at McMurdo while scientifically-defensible is controversial. The Code of Conduct adopted by the Antarctic Treaty parties recommends, at a minimum, that all sewage be macerated and disposed of at a location where there is ample opportunity for dispersal. NSF has installed a macerator at McMurdo. To achieve maximum dispersion of the waste in the receiving waters, NSF has installed an extended and submerged outfall. Over the past four years, monitoring of biological, toxic, and other harmful pollutant parameters have been undertaken. This monitoring program was developed to determine the impact of wastewater discharge on local marine environments and on the sea water used to provide fresh water at McMurdo, and to determine if additional wastewater treatment is needed. A summary of these parameters appears in Table 1. ùAmbient Air Monitoring. NSF initiated an ambient air monitoring program to develop both baseline information and data on the potential environmental impact of incineration, vehicle emissions, fuels handling and storage, and generation of fugitive dust within and near McMurdo Station. ùAssessment of the Current Solid-Waste System. Argonne National Laboratory Environmental Assessment and Information Sciences Division completed a solid-waste management study of McMurdo in 1992. The study evaluated current solid-waste production and administrative and procedural alternatives. The study developed information on alternative techniques and resources for improving waste management. It recommended disposal of food waste and food-related waste by incineration. insert table 1 table 1 page marker The USAP began a program to separate aluminum, glass and scrap steel from the waste stream in October 1989, and a year later began to segregate office paper. By February, 1991, all solid wastes at McMurdo Station other than food-related wastes were stored in appropriate containers for retrograde, i.e. removal, to the U.S. Early in the 1991-1992 austral season, USAP discontinued the use of plastic and paper containers, cups and plates in the McMurdo's galley to reduce the total volume of food-related waste originating from the galley. Tables 1 and 2 of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on USAP Management of Food Wastes during 1991-1992 at McMurdo Station, Antarctica dated August 2, 1991 (August 2, 1991 EIA) (NSF 1991b) depicted methods of handling food and food-related waste, and construction waste, respectively, at McMurdo Station. In addition, USAP clarified its station-wide waste management and separation policies and protocols in February 1991 in order to provide enhanced waste management guidance to USAP personnel and promote the proper disposal of wastes (USAP 1991). Specifically, the protocols provide for five distinct categories of solid waste: 1) food wastes; 2) scrap metal; 3) construction and demolition-related debris and scrap (including plastic and rubber); 4) non-specific burnables (e.g., cardboard, scrap lumber and broken pallets); and, 5) recyclable cardboard. In addition to the protocols, USAP enhanced and expanded upon established programs for personnel education and enhanced quality control and enforcement. Prior to February 8, 1991, USAP disposed of food-related wastes by burning them outdoors at the Fortress Rocks area of McMurdo Station. USAP suspended burning at the Fortress Rocks area on March 2, 1991, when asbestos was discovered at the site. Since that time, food wastes have been incinerated at McMurdo Station and at Scott Base, or retrograded to New Zealand and the United States. Small quantities have been ground and macerated and disposed of through the sewer outfall. On March 22, 1993, NSF suspended operation of the interim incinerator at McMurdo Station and it has not been operated since then. 2.3 Waste Management Study As part of the SEH Initiative, the USAP entered into an Interagency Agreement with the Department of Energy's Argonne National Laboratory in Fiscal Year 1990. Under the agreement Argonne was to conduct a comprehensive study to support USAP assessment of waste minimization, waste handling, and waste processing and disposal options that could be available to the USAP in developing a new waste management strategy and system. The study identified four solid waste categories: food and food-related wastes, non-hazardous waste, hazardous and nonhazardous fuels, oils and solvents, and hazardous wastes. The category of food and food-related wastes accounted for about 50% of all solid wastes handled at the station. During the Argonne study, the study group was also tasked with identifying if any incinerator technology was practical and feasible for use at McMurdo Station. Given knowledge of the characteristics of the station's waste stream and the context of antarctic operation, the study group researched available technologies and developed recommended specifications for a high-temperature thermal oxidation system (Pearson 1991) discussed in the interim incinerator alternative. In managing food-related wastes, USAP has looked at the broad picture -- not only at the waste and its effects, but also at the sources of the waste and waste minimization methods. Various possibilities for solutions appear when this is done. Examples include placing restrictions on materials brought into Antarctica; implementing different methods of waste-handling for various types of wastes; and using education to change personnel expectations and behavior that otherwise exacerbate the problem. As a result, USAP has taken several steps to minimize the production of food waste. The civilian support contractor assumed responsibility for the food services operation at McMurdo Station on October 1, 1992. The contractor's detailed meal planning and improved management has resulted in a decrease in food waste. This includes preparation of quantities carefully calculated to match the station population and better planning for use of excess food at subsequent meals. A reduction in food waste has also been achieved through an innovative procurement scheme for vegetable produce: vegetables are cleaned and prepared for cooking by a vendor in Christchurch, New Zealand. All excess leaf, stalk, and peelings are removed and the produce is then placed in nitrogen flushed packaging prior to shipment. The McMurdo galley is experiencing near zero loss of vegetable produce as all preparation is accomplished in New Zealand: a concrete example of waste minimization. Another reduction has occurred in the area of cooking oils. USAP designed and implemented extraction/filter devices that capture fatty acids from cooking oils. Recovery of reconstituted oil will enable reuse of the product. The most recent analysis of waste production at McMurdo produces the following annual estimates. These estimates are based on TEUs. TEUs are Transport Equivalent Units, a measure of volume based on a standard shipboard container, 8'x 8'x 20' (sometimes referred to as a milvan). Solid Waste TEUs Glass 4 Wood 75 Dry Burnables 50 Cooking Oils 1 Paper 4 Plastic 40 Cardboard 30 Metal 10 Construction Debris 45 Food Waste 40 Hazardous Waste 80 Total 379 In addition, there is currently a backlog of the following waste at McMurdo Station awaiting retrograde: Solid Waste TEUs Wood 175 Glass 8 Construction Debris 10 Metal 50 Total 243 2.4 Supplemental Environmental Impact Assessment In October, 1991, NSF published a Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (SEIS) on the U.S. Antarctic Program (NSF 1991a) that contains descriptions of the materials and waste situations existing at McMurdo Station during the 1989-1990 austral summer research season as well as on-going efforts to improve USAP's system of materials and waste management. The SEIS evaluated four alternatives for continued operation of the USAP. The recommended alternative called for completion of the ongoing Five Year Safety, Environment and Health Initiative, completion of an ongoing materials and waste management study, and implementation of the resulting recommendations. The SEIS's recommended alternative called for combustible waste, including food waste, to be incinerated or retrograded to the United States or another country. 2.5 Food Management Decision at McMurdo The August 2, 1991 EIA evaluated alternatives for food waste management, including an assessment of on-site incineration technologies for October 1, 1991 through December 31, 1992. Based on that assessment, a decision was issued on August 2, 1991 to install and operate an interim three-chambered incinerator for disposal of food waste and use the existing temporary incinerator to incinerate food wastes until the interim incinerator became operational. USAP procured the interim incinerator system described in the August 2, 1991 EIA, and began installation and testing during the 1992 winter-over period. The August 2, 1991 EIA anticipated that the interim incinerator would be installed and operational at McMurdo Station in approximately December 1991. Due to numerous unforeseeable delays, the interim incinerator was not fully operational until January, 1993. The logistical constraints of transporting equipment and personnel to McMurdo Station as well as the need to customize components of the interim incinerator to the unusual and harsh conditions of Antarctica to obtain optimal operation contributed to the delay. Due to the delay in installment of the interim incinerator, a large backlog of food waste accumulated. Some of this excess food waste was incinerated at the Scott Base incinerator, and some was retrograded to New Zealand by aircraft. While test burning the interim incinerator, some additional food waste was burned. Despite these efforts, a backlog of approximately 57 tons of food waste accumulated during the austral winter of 1992, which was retrograded to the United States in refrigerated vans on the Greenwave in February of 1993. Under a contract with a United States Department of Agriculture approved facility in California, this waste was steam sterilized, compacted, and then disposed of in an approved landfill. The sterilization process involved heating the waste above 400 degrees Fahrenheit for a minimum of two hours and testing the material for spores to meet state requirements designed to verify the effectiveness of the process. On March 22, 1993, USAP announced that it had ceased operating the incinerator while it completed this environmental assessment. In October, 1993, USAP announced that it had retrograded the backlog of food waste that had accumulated since February, 1993 (approximately 80,000 pounds) to New Zealand for disposal. 3.0 THE MCMURDO ENVIRONMENT McMurdo Station Land Use McMurdo Station (77ø55'S, 166ø 40'E), the major support station for the USAP, is located on Ross Island, Antarctica. The U.S. Navy began constructing and operating McMurdo Station in 1955. At the time, it was intended to be a logistics base for the United States' expeditionary presence. Since then, the station evolved from a temporary logistics base into an established, year-round station supporting both Antarctic scientific research and the logistics needed to conduct that research. Currently, the station is situated on approximately 200 acres (exclusive of outlying buildings), and consists of more than 100 structures, extensive storage yards, an ice pier, an annual sea-ice runway, a skiway, a helicopter landing area, and other ancillary structures and features (e.g., communications antennae and unpaved roads). In recent years, the average austral summer population at McMurdo ranged from about 1150 in November to about 600 in February. During the austral winter (late February through early October), the population at McMurdo usually ranges from 100 to 270 people, depending on science support activities, and construction and maintenance operations. Climate and Weather McMurdo Station is located on a southward-projecting peninsula of Ross Island, which is on the edge of the Ross Ice Shelf. Due to its location between the frigid interior of Antarctica and the more temperate open ocean, its weather is affected by cold air drainage flowing off the continent and ice shelf and by strong cyclones from the Ross and Amundsen Seas. McMurdo shares Ross Island with an active volcano, Mt. Erebus, and a New Zealand station, Scott Base. Mean monthly temperatures at McMurdo range from -3øC (26øF) in December and January to -28øC (-18øF) in August. Extreme maximum and minimum temperatures of 7øC (42øF) and -51øC (-59øF), respectively, were recorded during a 13-year period at McMurdo. The mean annual temperature is approximately -18øC (0øF). Wind speeds at McMurdo may vary substantially in a short period but are persistent in direction. The persistence of east winds at McMurdo appears to be primarily a function of the local terrain channeling air around Ross Island (O'Connor and Bromwich 1988; Schwerdtfeger 1984). Peak wind gusts are generally around 20 meters/second (45 mph) in the summer months and 35 meters/second (78 mph) in the winter months. Although strong winds are relatively common, so are light winds; for example, over 13% of the observations for the 10-year period from 1973 through 1982 were reported as calm. The average annual wind speed at McMurdo is 5.27 meters/second (11.8 mph). Precipitation occurs only as snowfall, at an average rate of 17.4 cm (6.84 in.) of water equivalent annually; ice fog is common throughout the year. Operations and Causes of Isolation Work at McMurdo occurs throughout the year. During the winter months, however, activities are greatly curtailed. The station population is reduced to a minimum by out-going flights at the end of February. No flight operations occur from the end of February until the end of August, except for a mid-June austral winter airdrop of mail and supplies (i.e., no landings). Airplanes cannot safely land at McMurdo Station during the austral winter because a variety of hazardous conditions including lack of adequate navigation, airfield lighting, and landing aids, severe cold and winds and darkness. These conditions add great risks to normal aircraft and airfield operations. Only a few flights have been risked during the winter, and then only in cases of extreme medical emergencies. The first opportunity to reach McMurdo Station by air after station closure in late February normally occurs during the last two weeks of August. This high- risk window of opportunity, known as WINFLY, is the first time during the austral winter period that there is sufficient daylight at McMurdo Station to support targeted aircraft landings. WINFLY is limited to 6-8 flights over a period of 3-4 days (depending on favorable weather conditions). Only key station personnel, supplies and equipment essential to preparing McMurdo Station facilities for the new austral summer research season are transported during WINFLY. The austral summer research season traditionally begins on October 1 of each year (weather permitting) with the phased arrival of USAP participants--the "main body" of USAP personnel participating in a given austral summer season. That phased entry is termed MAINBODY. Beginning in October of each year, wheeled aircraft (C-141s, C-5s and C-130s) begin to provide access to McMurdo Station on a regular basis (weather permitting). These aircraft land on a sea ice runway. Almost all science and support personnel and cargo must be transported to McMurdo during October, November and early December when the ice runway is thick enough to support these aircraft. After December 1, the chances of being able to land an aircraft on sea ice begin to decrease rapidly and are virtually non-existent by the mid-December. For the remaining two-and-a-half months of the austral summer, ski-equipped LC-130 aircraft provide air transport to and from McMurdo. LC-130s have much smaller payloads than C-5s and C-141s, and, as a result, personnel transported by air and material and cargo supply by air decrease dramatically during this period. Resupply operations to McMurdo Station by sea begin in early January with the arrival of a U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) icebreaker, that opens a channel in the sea ice covering McMurdo Sound for in-coming resupply ships. Two resupply ships, one for cargo and one for fuel, are able to reach McMurdo Station through this channel. Prior to the window for sea entry to McMurdo, sea ice conditions and severe weather preclude entry, even by icebreaker, to the Ross Sea. The cargo ship is a specially designed ice-strengthened vessel which can withstand the rigors of operating in the McMurdo environment. The cargo ship generally arrives at McMurdo in late January/early February, for a period of approximately one week. The cargo ship has a capacity of approximately 600 TEUs. Because of the high cost of air operations and limited air capacity, almost all solid waste goes onboard the cargo vessel for removal from Antarctica. Because of the harsh antarctic climate and resulting isolation of McMurdo Station from late February through late August, USAP has only a short window of opportunity within which to transport personnel, equipment and materials to and from Antarctica. As a result, USAP must determine well in advance when personnel, equipment and materials can arrive in Antarctica, and then plan meticulously to coordinate science, construction, personnel, and procurement schedules with the transportation limitations during the Antarctic's short window of opportunity. A year's delay in any given project could result from a failure to manage logistics to meet this crucial window of opportunity. Air Quality 1. Natural, Ambient Air Constituents. The dominant factor affecting regional air quality in the vicinity of McMurdo Station is Mount Erebus -- an active volcano, located approximately 25 miles north of McMurdo, on Ross Island. Data from Kyle et al. (1990) indicate that Mount Erebus' sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions range from 230 Megagrams (Mg)/day (507,000 pounds per day or 185,000,000 pounds per year) in 1983 to 25 Mg/day (55,000 pounds per day or 20,000,000 pounds per year) in 1984, 16 Mg/day (35,000 pounds per day or 13,000,000 pounds per year) in 1985, and 51 Mg/day (110,000 pounds per day or 41,000,000 pounds per year) in 1987. In 1983, inferred hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) emissions from the volcano were 1200 Mg/day (2,646,000 pounds per day or 965,600,000 pounds per year) and 500 Mg/day (1,100,000 pounds per day or 402,000,000 pounds per year), respectively (Kyle et al. 1990). These amounts of pollutants affect not only regional air quality on Ross Island but also McMurdo air quality. For example, it is estimated, using an EPA screening model, that an important fraction of the total SO2 at McMurdo (perhaps as much as 50 percent for the short-term under worst case conditions) may come from Mount Erebus. (Kyle et al. 1990). 2. Anthropogenic Sources. In addition to the air emissions from Mount Erebus discussed above, there are anthropogenic emissions and air constituents at McMurdo (Pearson 1991). Boilers, furnaces, space heaters, electric generators, motor vehicle engines, fugitive dust, petroleum storage tank vapors, aircraft operations, and ships all emit atmospheric pollutants at or near McMurdo Station. Quantitative estimates of air pollutant emissions are provided in Table 4 of the August 2, 1991 EIA at McMurdo for the above sources (with the exception of sporadic ship operations and fugitive dust emissions. These estimates were made with emission factor data from AP-42 (USEPA 1985a and 1985b) for each of the source types in Table 4, except for aircraft operations. Estimated emissions of fixed-wing aircraft set forth in Table 4 of the August 2, 1991 EIA were based on data that give amounts for the landing-takeoff cycle for different aircraft (Seitchek 1985) and represent only those that occur on the ground and during takeoff, climbout, approach and landing. Main air pollutants emitted by the above are nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2, collectively referred to as NOx), SO2, carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC), and particulate matter under 10 microns in diameter (PM-10). The PM-10 emission estimates in the August 2, 1991 EIA's Table 4 are conservative, as total suspended particulate (TSP) matter emission factors were used to generate the estimates. Although other trace pollutants such as metals would also be emitted by some of these activities, their levels in fuels is highly dependent on the characteristics of the parent crude oil. Another contribution to air emissions is the approximately 400 vehicles other than aircraft used at McMurdo. These include such diesel-powered, heavy equipment as front-end loaders, caterpillar tractors, cranes, and scrapers. There are trucks, vans, tracked-vehicles, and snowmobiles. The exact number of vehicles varies from year to year as program requirements change. Loose soil disturbed by vehicle traffic on unpaved roads, helicopter landings and takeoffs at an unpaved area, and wind erosion in areas used for collection of construction fill are the major sources of airborne particulates at McMurdo Station. Because the amounts of dust generated by these activities are difficult to model and have not been measured, they are not estimated here. Another source of emissions is power generation at McMurdo, which is provided by six diesel-electric generators, each having a capacity of 800 to 900 kVa. Some of these units are in maintenance or stand-by status at any one time. 3. Establishment of Ambient Air Monitoring Program at McMurdo. Recognizing the lack of baseline data on air quality at McMurdo Station, NSF implemented an ambient air monitoring program at McMurdo Station. In 1992, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) prepared an ambient air monitoring plan for McMurdo that established the following objectives: (1) to determine the highest concentrations of pollutants expected to occur in the area covered by the network, (2) to determine representative concentrations of selected air pollutants in areas of high population density (3) to determine the impact on ambient pollution levels of significant sources or source categories, and (4) to determine background levels of selected air pollutants (Lugar, 1992). INEL implemented the plan during the 1992-1993 season. The objectives, quality assurance, and performance criteria established for the monitoring network were consistent with the intent of U.S. E.P.A. State and Local Air Monitoring Stations (SLAMS) objectives and network design (40 CFR Part 58), and the U.S. EPA Quality Assurance Handbook (U.S. EPA 1977). A variety of air pollutants, including many for which the U.S. EPA has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards, were selected for monitoring, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NO/NO2/NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO), as well as Particulate Matter with a diameter less than or equal to 10 micrometers (PM10) and Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSP). Utilizing historical wind data, a sampling network consisting of three locations was elected. The three sites selected were: 8-Site for predominantly upwind location, Hut Point, for a predominantly downwind site, and Central McMurdo, near building 155, as the "worst case urban" location. The monitoring plan called for one set of continuous gas analyzers to be permanently located at Hut Point, and a second set of analyzers to be rotated on a bi-weekly basis between the Central McMurdo and 8-Site locations. The methodology for collecting the samples is fully discussed in EG&G Idaho, Inc.'s Report "Results of PM10 and TSP Monitoring at McMurdo Station, Antarctica" authored by Robert M. Lugar, May 1993. The first samples were collected between November of 1992 and February of 1993. The concentrations of SO2, NO2, and CO measured during this initial monitoring effort were below all applicable U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). SO2, NO, NO2, and NOx were detected at both Hut Point and Central McMurdo in the low parts per billion (ppb) range. CO levels at both locations were near or below the 0.1 ppm level of detection. The localized impact of vehicle and ship emissions on the ambient concentrations of SO2 and NOx were observed at Hut Point. No prominent evidence of any direct effect of Mount Erebus SO2 emissions were observed during this initial monitoring effort. PM10 concentrations ranged from below the detection limit of 2.2 æg/m3 measured at 8-Site, to a maximum concentration of 37.5 æg/m3 measured at the Central McMurdo site. All measurements were below the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards for PM10 of 50 æg/m3 (annual arithmetic mean) and 150 æg/m3 (24 hour maximum). Based on PM10 data collected from selected U.S. cities, the summer seasonal PM10 levels measured at the central McMurdo location were comparable to concentrations found in Santa Fe, New Mexico or St. Cloud, Minnesota (U.S. EPA 1992). TSP levels ranged from 6.1 æg/m3 at 8-Site to a maximum of 675.5 æg/m3 measured at the Central McMurdo site. From 1971 to 1987, TSP was used by the U.S. EPA as the indicator for particulate matter pollution. In 1987, PM10 replaced TSP as the regulatory indicator for particulate air pollution. As expected, TSP concentrations measured higher than PM10 levels at all monitoring locations. Due to a very limited TSP data set, a reliable conclusion cannot be ascertained regarding mean TSP levels. The elevated TSP levels relative to PM10 concentrations at the central McMurdo location is most likely explained by the resuspension of larger particulate matter from the nearby roadway by vehicular traffic and wind. Fuel Transportation and Storage A fuel tanker vessel arrives annually at McMurdo in late January and refuels McMurdo Station. McMurdo has 18 steel bulk fuel storage tanks, which have a combined capacity of approximately 34 million L (9 million gallons). Each year, fuel is unloaded from the tanker through a pipeline that connects the ice pier to the bulk storage tanks. Fuel is transported from the bulk storage tanks to its ultimate destinations by pipelines, hoses and wheeled tanker trucks. Fuel for the sea-ice runway and Williams Field is moved by truck or tractor or by portable hose that connects the McMurdo fuel distribution system to storage tanks and bladders at the two runways. As part of its program of environmental management, the USAP has instituted several improvements in fuel handling at McMurdo Station. NSF records show that a common cause of fuel spills were from leaks from rubber bladders and seals and fitting. In response, NSF took several measures to diminish the chances of oil leakage from these sources. NSF replaced the flexible hose for the fuel transport line between McMurdo and Williams Field with a new "dry break" fuel hose in December, 1990. The new "dry break" fuel hose has only 13 fittings, compared to over 700 in the old fuel transport line. NSF is also upgrading the fuel storage facilities at South Pole, Williams Field, and Marble Point. In addition to improving transport and storage facilities, USAP has developed and implemented a Station Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasures Plan and Station Spill Contingency Plan. Ecological Resources 1. Marine ecosystems. The ocean waters at McMurdo Station are cold, nutrient rich, and have naturally high dissolved oxygen concentrations (Figure 1). McMurdo Sound has dramatic spatial variations in primary production, current patterns, and benthic marine populations. Although conditions vary widely across the Sound, regional conditions are stable. For example, because the eastern part of the Sound near McMurdo Station has southward-moving currents that are rich in nutrients, the benthic populations that occur there are diverse. INSERT FIGURE 1 2. Marine mammals and birds. Ross Island and adjacent McMurdo Sound provide breeding sites for such marine mammals and bird species as Weddell seals, Adelie penguins, and Emperor penguins. About 1500 adult Weddell Seals use Erebus Bay each year to raise pups (Testa and Siniff 1987). Each year about 150,000 pairs of Adelie penguins and 36,000 pairs of Emperor penguins use this area for breeding (Wilson 1983). The closest penguin rookery to McMurdo Station is located approximately twelve miles north of McMurdo at Cape Royds. Because penguins require access to unfrozen waters for survival, penguins do not appear at McMurdo Station during the austral winter. Penguins are sporadically sighted at McMurdo during the austral summer following the ice breaker's opening of the channel. Weddell seals and migratory skuas are the most conspicuous wildlife in the immediate vicinity of McMurdo Station. Laws (1990) notes that guano and feces from bird and seal colonies on land enter the antarctic marine environment at levels substantially greater than does human sewage from antarctic facilities. Antarctic skuas were regular avian scavenger visitors to McMurdo Station during the austral summer, in search of food until the closure of the Fortress Rocks area. 3. Terrestrial ecosystems. Because more than 97% of Antarctica's 14-million-km2 (5.4-million-square miles) land mass is covered by ice, exposed rock and other substrate available to support terrestrial ecosystems is limited. Surface materials in the immediate vicinity of McMurdo Station have been disturbed by human activity. Little vegetation exists in the immediate vicinity of McMurdo Station because of surface disturbance. A study of plant communities has recognized six plant associations in the Ross Island area, ranging from lichens and mosses to algae (Longton 1973). Laws (1991) notes that airborne pollution effects on antarctic vegetation are localized and very limited. Using data from a monitoring survey near one fairly large station, he noted that after 10 years of station operation heavy metal accumulations in lichens were evident only within 250 meters downwind. The terrestrial fauna of the Ross Island area are invertebrates; no terrestrial vertebrates are native to the area. The invertebrate groups range from protozoans to insects and mites. McMurdo Sanitary Waste Disposal System Article 5 of Annex III of the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty provides that sewage and domestic liquid wastes may be discharged directly into the sea, taking into account the assimilative capacity of the receiving marine environment and provided that: (a) such discharge is located, wherever practicable, where conditions exist for initial dilution and rapid dispersal; and (b) large quantities of such waste (generated in a station where the average weekly occupancy over the austral summer is approximately 30 individuals or more) shall be treated at least by maceration. Wastewater at McMurdo Station has been consolidated into one outfall with a subsurface discharge into McMurdo Sound. McMurdo's galley, located in Building 155, is incorporated into this system. The system incorporates a macerator in the discharge line that grinds solids passing through the system, and dilution with excess brine, a byproduct of potable drinking water generation. The outfall is located approximately 70 meters offshore (50 meters beyond the outfall quay), and is submerged 17.5 meters below the surface and 1.5 meters above the bottom of the Sound. The outfall is located near the mouth of Winter Quarters Bay which is contaminated with oil, other hydrocarbons, and some heavy metals. Consequently, the sea floor adjacent to the outfall may be influenced by the conditions in Winter Quarters Bay. Benthic communities in the Bay are nonexistent or contain only low numbers of opportunistic species. There is a steep gradient of increasing abundance and diversity in benthic communities with increasing distance from Winter Quarters Bay. Infaunal communities in other portions of McMurdo Sound are some of the richest in the world. McMurdo Water Monitoring NSF consulted with EPA for assistance in implementing a water quality monitoring program at McMurdo. EPA recommended using the Clean Water Act as guidance. Based on this guidance, NSF developed a program to evaluate the impact of the discharge on marine biota, address water quality standards, and analyze for potential toxic substances in the discharge. The water quality monitoring program is divided into three areas: biological monitoring; ambient water quality monitoring; and effluent monitoring. NSF has monitored the outfall discharge for the past four years to determine plume characteristics and to collect data for future assessment of the need for additional sewage treatment. During the 1992-1993 austral season, NSF implemented the other components of the monitoring program. Biological Monitoring. Biological monitoring is intended to include periodic surveys of the biological communities and populations most likely affected by the discharge to enable comparisons with baseline conditions. The biological monitoring program currently underway consists of three elements: community and population studies, bioaccumulation of contaminants in biota and sediments, and bioassays. Over the past three years, the program has documented concentrations of chemical contaminants, changes in community patterns, as well as the toxicity of some sediments to invertebrate species and infaunal communities. The primary contaminants are petroleum hydrocarbons in the sediment of Winter Quarters Bay, a former dump site located adjacent to the outfall pipe. Bioassay experiments found that biological changes observed in benthic communities around McMurdo Station were most likely caused by hydrocarbons, PCB and PCT concentrations. (Lenihan and Oliver, Benthic Marine Pollution Around McMurdo Station, Antarctica: A Summary of Findings, 57 Marine Pollution Bulletin Vol. 25). The wastewater effluent is not a source of these contaminants. Water Quality. The wastewater quality monitoring program is intended to provide data for comparison with U.S. water quality standards and measure the concentration of toxic pollutants which have been identified or could reasonably be expected to be present in the discharge. Table 1 on page five contains an analytical summary of the McMurdo wastewater components. Based on wastewater samples collected during the 1990-1991 and 1991-1992 seasons, the wastewater was characterized as domestic sewage with no unusual levels of heavy metals or toxic substances. Ten additional wastewater samples were collected during the 1992-1993 season. The only unusual reported characteristics were elevated concentrations of copper and lead. These metals originated from the plumbing system due to the corrosiveness of the water. As a result of these data, NSF installed a pH balancing system in June 1992 which has increased the pH of the water, and eliminated leaching of lead from the plumbing and reduced copper levels in the water. As part of the new reverse osmosis water treatment facility, a system will be installed to increase the alkalinity of the water and decrease its corrosivity. Organic compounds, with the exception of one sample containing acetone (220 æ/l but not detected in most other samples) were detected at very low levels (Tables 2,3,4). The levels are far below all available marine water quality criteria. Analysis of sea ice cores indicates no adverse impacts from organic compounds in the effluent and receiving waters. Currently, drinking water for McMurdo Station is produced from sea water via flash evaporation (distillation). Although the plume from the wastewater discharge may disperse in the region near the water intake for the flash evaporators during episodic reversals of the ocean currents, the wastewater discharge does not adversely impact drinking water quality. The flash evaporators essentially distill salt water, producing pure fresh water from the process. Tests of the distilled water for INSERT TABLE 2 INSERT TABLE 3 TABLE 3 page marker TABLE 3 page marker TABLE 4 bacterial and viral contamination have confirmed the purity of the system. In addition, a chemical disinfectant (chlorine) is added to the fresh water derived from the flash evaporators in order to maintain a disinfectant residual in the potable water distribution system. This water treatment is consistent with current U.S. EPA's Safe Drinking Water Act requirements (i.e. 40 CFR Parts 141 & 142). Based on engineering considerations, the existing flash evaporators will be replaced with several reverse osmosis (RO) units in the near future. (See Initial Environmental Evaluation, Replacement of the Sea Water Desalination System, McMurdo Station, dated May 18, 1993). The existing water intake systems will be utilized for the RO units. Sand filters will be added to the intake system, removing particulate material from the salt water prior to encountering the RO membranes. A chemical disinfectant (chlorine) will be added to the fresh water produced from this RO process in order to prevent environmental bacteria from colonizing the distribution system. Effluent Monitoring. The effluent monitoring program is intended to provide quantitative and qualitative data to measure toxic substances in the effluent and the effectiveness of any toxics control procedures or programs. This section will also discuss characteristics of the effluent. Table 5 contains data from effluent samples collected over a four-year period. With respect to standard wastewater parameters, McMurdo's wastewater effluent is typical of domestic wastewater with the exception of increased total dissolved solids (TSD). The increased levels of TSD result from the addition of brine from the potable water plant to the wastewater stream. Organic and inorganic parameters have already been discussed above. Although the data indicates that the wastewater has expected elevated Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), there is no evidence of decreased dissolved oxygen levels in the marine water quality in the outfall region. Placement of the outfall and maceration of the effluent substantially increase dispersion of the waste water stream. Ocean currents effectively disperse the effluent over a larger area. Placement of the pipe well below the surface of the water, combined with the warm temperature of the effluent, result in considerable spreading through the water column. The concentrations of effluent diminish rapidly short distances from the outfall pipe. In the immediate vicinity of the outfall, sediments were organically enriched by settled solids in the sewage effluent and TABLE 5 table 5 pagemarker table 5 pagemarker table 5 pagemarker support a community similar to those around sewage outfalls in temperate latitudes. Furthermore, a notable accumulation of organic debris was observed in 1992 in the immediate vicinity of the outfall. NSF is currently assessing the options and feasibility for additional sewage treatment at McMurdo. Historic Sites and Monuments Historic sites and monuments are recognized as part of the continent's scenic, aesthetic, and historic values. Historic sites and monuments within walking distance of McMurdo include Scott's "Discovery" Hut and Vince's Cross on Hut Point, the Richard E. Byrd Memorial at McMurdo Station, and the Polar Party Cross on Observation Hill. Other Ross Island historic sites include the huts at Cape Royds, Cape Evans, and Cape Crozier and the cross on Wind Vane Hill, all accessible by helicopter from McMurdo. Specially Protected Areas (SPAs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) The most heavily protected areas in Antarctica are SPAs. Antarctic Treaty member nations designate SPAs to "preserve their unique natural ecological system". Also, Antarctic Treaty members have designated SSSIs, for which management plans are prepared. These areas are protected if there is "a demonstrable risk of interference" with scientific research or if the site is of "exceptional scientific interest". The only protected area in or near McMurdo Station is the Arrival Heights SSSI located one mile from the center of McMurdo. This site is designated as an SSSI because it is an electromagnetically quiet area, offering an ideal site for recording data associated with auroral and geomagnetic investigations. Since prevailing winds at McMurdo are easterly, the winds over McMurdo head west, away from the Arrival Heights SSSI. The next closest protected site is the Cape Royds SSSI located about 12 miles from McMurdo Station. There are no SPAs in the vicinity of McMurdo. 4.0 ALTERNATIVES AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS A. Alternatives to Accomplish Agency Proposal The following alternatives were developed in consideration of the proposed action: oAlternative A1. Current volume reduction, disposal of small volumes of liquid food wastes, and indefinite storage of wastes at McMurdo Station. This alternative is the "No action" alternative required for comparison of the environmental effects among alternatives; o Alternative A2. Retrograde food wastes on annual supply ship to the United States; oAlternative A3. Retrograde food wastes to New Zealand; oAlternative A4. Retrograde food wastes by open ocean dumping outside of the Antarctic Treaty Area; oAlternative A5. Retrograde food wastes to the United States via aircraft. Alternative A1. Current volume reduction, disposal of small volumes of liquid food wastes, and indefinite storage of wastes at McMurdo Station. This alternative is the "No action" alternative required for comparison of the environmental effects among alternatives. This alternative is a continuation of current practices for the reduction of the volume of food wastes (discussed above), disposal of small volumes of liquid wastes, and subsequent indefinite storage of wastes at McMurdo Station. STOCKPILING OF SOLID FOOD WASTES Food waste accumulates at an annual rate of approximately 100 tons a year at McMurdo. There are inadequate facilities to store this waste indoors. Indefinite stockpiling of the food waste would attract scavenging antarctic birds. To minimize dispersal of the food waste into the Antarctic environment and interference with antarctic bird's normal eating habits, USAP would need to place the waste in plastic bags and triwalls, which would then be placed in milvans. USAP would require 90 additional milvans a year to store this waste, as a cost of $270,000 annually. The milvans, however, would not keep the food waste from decomposing once ambient temperatures warmed above 32 degrees Fahrenheit during the austral summer. DISPOSAL OF LIQUID FOOD WASTE THROUGH THE WASTEWATER SYSTEM USAP is currently processing and disposing of limited amounts of liquid food waste through grinders into the wastewater system at McMurdo Station. This category of food wastes is predominantly water and therefore cannot be efficiently incinerated. Historically, liquid food waste and water with food residue from the galley was discharged into the McMurdo waste water system. Examples include: leftover coffee, juices, and soups; water from food preparation and kitchen clean-up. For convenience, this category of food waste is referred to as liquid food waste. The August 2, 1991 EIA examined the alternative of installing food grinders in McMurdo's galley to accommodate disposal of solid food waste through the wastewater system. Since food grinding equipment was not available at the time of the assessment and there was limited understanding of the potential impact on dissolved oxygen levels in the Sound from the introduction of additional amounts of food waste into the wastewater system, this was not a preferred alternative. USAP estimates that during the austral summer when the McMurdo population is the highest, the daily quantities of this liquid waste are as follows: Residue coffee 10 gallons Residue juices 7 gallons Residue soups 5 gallons Milk 3 gallons Dishwater 50 gallons Steamkettle water 200 gallons Water from galley cleaning 200 gallons Vegetable rinsewater 60 gallons Food preparation water 70 gallons Estimated daily total 605 gallons These numbers reflect the minimization efforts discussed above and vary from day to day. USAP installed new grinders in the food galley in October, 1991 to provide an additional step in processing liquid food wastes prior to maceration and dilution with brine in the wastewater system. Environmental Effects McMurdo and Environs NSF considers the indefinite accumulation of 200,000 pounds of food and food-related wastes year after year unacceptable because of environmental as well as safety and human health concerns. There is insufficient storage capacity for this food waste; and once ambient temperatures warmed above 32øF during the austral summer, there would be an unacceptable stench from the indefinite accumulation of food waste. NSF's experience has been that occasional high winds have caused some dispersion of stored food wastes. Also, with increasing warm austral summer temperatures, scavenging antarctic birds could exacerbate dispersion. Scavenging by these birds could also interfere with their normal eating habits. This alternative would not provide acceptable long-term management for food wastes at McMurdo. The liquid food waste comprises a small component of the total daily wastewater production at McMurdo Station. During the austral summer daily wastewater production at McMurdo is approximately 100,000 gallons per day (SEIS Appendix F, Table F.1). The liquid food waste and water with food residues from the galley constitute approximately .6% of this total wastewater output. The additional grinding that this waste receives prior to maceration and dilution with brine further reduces food particle size which is expected to enhance assimilation. Any adverse impact from increased nutrient levels from the liquid food waste in such a relatively large nearshore environment with a large wildlife population is unlikely. These waters are characteristically high in nutrients of concern (i.e, nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon), have very high concentrations of dissolved oxygen (and are not prone, therefore, to eutrophication) and exhibit unexpectedly high productivity. According to INEL effluent monitoring data collected during the 1992-1993 austral summer season, there is no evidence of decreased dissolved oxygen levels in the marine water quality in the outfall region. Their studies also show that the concentrations of effluent diminish rapidly short distances for the outfall pipe. In addition, the liquid wastes do not contain toxic organics and comprise only 0.6% of the total wastewater output. For these reasons, the input of ground liquids and high- water content food residues is not expected to adversely impact the marine environment. Outside of Antarctica The "No Action" Alternative would have no direct environmental impacts outside of Antarctica. Costs The annual cost for 90 milvans would be $270,000. Public Health Indefinite stockpiling of food wastes has the potential to create health risks and the stench would be a public nuisance. Alternative A2. Retrograde food wastes on annual supply ship to the United States. This alternative is similar to Alternative A1, except that the food and food-related wastes would be removed from Antarctica to the United States rather than remain in storage at McMurdo Station. In February, 1992, USAP retrograded approximately 57 tons of food waste to the U.S. on the annual supply ship. The food waste was placed into lined triwall containers for transport. The food waste with highest water content was placed in clear plastic bags prior to being placed in the triwall. For transport to the U.S., the food waste triwalls were placed in refrigerated vans onboard the M/V Greenwave. Upon return to the United States, U.S. Department of Agriculture regulations mandate certain disposal procedures. These require food waste to be properly contained in leakage proof containers, and removed to an appropriate disposal facility for incineration, sterilization or grinding. The food waste was disposed of through a contract with a U.S.D.A. approved facility in California which steam sterilized, compacted, and then disposed of the food waste in an approved landfill. The sterilization process involves heating the waste above 400 degrees Fahrenheit for a minimum of two hours and testing the material for spores in order to meet state requirements designed to verify the effectiveness of the process. USAP projects that food and food-related waste will accumulate at McMurdo at an annual rate of 190 milvans (150 milvans of food- related waste and 40 milvans of food waste). Retrograding all this food and food-related waste to the United States poses two problems for USAP: storage of the waste at McMurdo until the arrival of the ship and the limited capacity of the M/V Greenwave. Storage of accumulated food waste presents significant problems. There are no buildings, warehouses, or refrigerated milvans available for storage of this waste. Because of the long planning and logistics cycle, procurement, shipment, and installation of additional storage space for this waste would take approximately two years. The food waste must be kept at or near a frozen condition to prevent spoilage, facilitate packaging and enhance hygienic handling conditions. As the weather warms prior to the arrival of the annual resupply ship, scavenging Antarctic birds will be attracted to the food waste if proper storage cannot be provided. This could interfere with the birds' normal eating habits and could lead to the developing dependence on human activity for their food supply. Food-related waste, much of which is composed of light-weight material, requires storage in milvans. Winter conditions at McMurdo Station are characterized by continuous darkness and significant winds. Loading the milvans in an unprotected outdoor setting with poor visibility and exposure to the winds might result in dispersion of the waste materials over wide areas of McMurdo. To address these storage problems, USAP would need to redistribute the allocation of milvans now at McMurdo which will have negative impacts on other environmental activities. There are currently 175 milvans at McMurdo available for transporting waste from McMurdo. USAP planned to use 125 of these milvans to address the backlog of other solid waste (construction wood and scrap metal) currently at McMurdo. If these milvans are diverted to storing food and food-related waste, this could result in delays in removing the other solid wastes from McMurdo. The Greenwave has a capacity of 600 milvans or TEUs. This includes a maximum capacity of 44 refrigerated vans which must be transported on deck accessible to the crew for daily checks on the refrigeration system. Four of the refrigerated vans must be used for science, leaving 40 available for food waste. The total annual requirement for retrograding all other waste (hazardous waste, scrap metal, construction debris, etc.) is approximately 379 milvans. Another annual requirement is general cargo, primarily returning scientific equipment and samples, at 185 milvans annually. As discussed above, the annual accumulation of food waste and food-related waste is 190 milvans. In addition, a backlog of 243 milvans of other solid waste (construction wood and scrap metal) is awaiting retrograde from McMurdo. Thus, the annual retrograde requirement of 754 milvans exceeds the capacity of the vessel by 154 milvans if all food waste is retrograded. Furthermore, USAP could never remove the backlog of 243 milvans of other solid waste. A tub grinder could be used to achieve a 3 to 1 reduction in the volume of food-related waste. This would reduce the annual milvan requirement for food-related waste from 150 to 50 milvans. Although a tub grinder would lower the annual milvan requirement for total numbers of milvans for retrograde, USAP could still not remove all solid waste and cargo present at McMurdo when the Greenwave arrives. To remedy this situation, USAP could charter additional ship time on the Greenwave to allow the ship to return to New Zealand to unload cargo followed by a second port call at McMurdo (commonly known as a double shuttle). The double shuttle would also increase USAP's capacity to deliver more sorely needed milvans to McMurdo. The food waste and food-related waste would be retrograded to the United States for disposal. Because the Greenwave's port of call is Port Hueneme, California, and NSF pays for use of the ship on a per diem basis, it is most cost effective to offload the food waste at a port on the west coast. USAP is currently finalizing contractual arrangements to dispose of the food waste in the greater Seattle area. USAP is presently engaged in on-going discussions with U.S.D.A. and E.P.A. officials as well as State, County, and local health department officials to obtain any necessary approvals or permits for disposal of the food waste in the State of Washington. Since U.S.D.A. regulations require the food waste to be sterilized or incinerated upon entry into the United States, the food waste will either be incinerated in a municipal incinerator and landfilled, or sterilized by composting. Longer term methods to reduce volumes of food and food-related waste As noted above, the large volume of food and food-related waste produced at McMurdo Station significantly taxes the limited capacity for storage at McMurdo and onboard the cargo vessel. For this reason, USAP is researching technologies to further reduce the volume of food waste and food-related waste as part of the waste management system at the Station. Dewatering. One way to reduce the volume of food waste is to acquire a mechanical filter press dewatering system to remove excess moisture from the food waste. The device could be installed in the existing Building 155 near the galley and the extracted water would enter the sewage system. The $30,000 device would be electrically driven, and minimally increase power requirements at the Station. Dewatering decreases the volume of food waste by approximately 50%. This would reduce the total food waste milvan annual requirement to 20. A reduction in the quantity of food waste would reduce the energy costs associated with storing the food waste at McMurdo, loading the waste on the ship, and transporting the waste to its site of disposal. Additional energy savings would be the lower number of refrigerated vans required to be in operation during ship transit. Dewatering is the first step for subsequent incineration or pelletizing. Dewatering should not be used if the food waste will be composted. Pellitizing. The pelletizing process utilizes a dehydrator and extruder to produce small dry pellets suitable for animal feed. This technology is beginning to become commercially available. The dehydration process would create some air emissions and would require additional power. The moisture content would be even further reduced than by simple mechanical dewatering. Refrigerated vans would not be required for shipment as the product is stable. Storage and transportation energy requirements would also be reduced because of the relatively light weight of the pellets. This system would be expected to cost about one million dollars and would require a dedicated building. Additional costs may be partially offset by income from sale of the pellets. Such a system would take two to three years to install. Composting. Invessel composting has been successfully used in small communities in the United States. This system is totally enclosed and modular in design which could lend itself to the McMurdo environs. Food waste is suitable for composing because it has suitable amounts of nitrogen and carbon. Composting is another method of significantly reducing the volume of food waste prior to shipment--estimated at 70%. This method could also reduce waste paper. Composting would require a building at McMurdo dedicated for this purpose. The cost is estimated at $500,000 and this could be partially offset by sale of the compost. Exhausts from the composter would be treated by a scrubbing unit. The system would probably take three years for implementation at McMurdo. As noted above, USAP is also researching the possibility of composting the waste at a facility in the State of Washington. Environmental Effects McMurdo and Environs Retrograding virtually all food waste to the U.S. by ship would have a positive effect on the McMurdo environment because disposal would occur outside the Antarctic Treaty area. Problems associated with dispersal of stockpiled food and food-related waste could be mitigated by providing an adequate number of milvans or other storage facilities for the waste. Proper containment would prevent the waste from being scattered in the McMurdo area by winds or native wildlife. To a large extent, it would prevent native Antarctic birds from becoming dependent on the waste as a food source. Outside of Antarctica As discussed above, USAP is planning on bringing the food waste to Washington State. In accordance with U.S.D.A. regulations, the food and food-related waste would either be sterilized (by composting) or incinerated at U.S.D.A. approved facilities prior to disposal in an authorized landfill. In Washington State, local governments (cities and counties) have lead responsibility for solid waste management. Each county is required to prepare a comprehensive solid waste management plan. These plans describe existing solid waste handling facilities and long-range needs. Local jurisdictional health departments are responsible for issuing permits for solid waste handling facilities. The health department must investigate each application to determine whether the proposed site and facility meets all applicable laws and regulations and conforms with the comprehensive waste management plan. The State Department of Ecology reviews every solid waste management facility permit to ensure that the proposed site conforms with applicable laws and regulations and the comprehensive waste management plan. The 1991 Washington State Solid Waste Management Plan considers composting a key component to reaching the state's 50% recycling goal. The State encourages composting of organic solid wastes and using the finished compost product as a soil amendment or mulch. To further this goal, the State of Washington Department of Ecology awarded five compost study grants in 1991 to local governments. These grants supported research to enhance current markets and uses, develop new markets, obtain technical information about product quality, test new collection and processing methods for compost and explore appropriate applications for compost products. Ecology had identified 17 regulated composting facilities in Washington. The Minimum Functional Standards for Solid Waste Handling (MFS) regulate composting. USAP disposal of waste by composting would be consistent with the State goal to foster use of composting. The Washington Solid Waste Management Reduction and Recycling Act establishes energy recovery and incineration of separated waste; and energy recovery and incineration of mixed wastes; as the third and fourth priorities for the collection and management of solid waste in the State of Washington. RCW 70.95.010(8)(c)(d). Incinerators are regulated under MFS. According to Washington State Department of Ecology, Publication #92-103, Solid Waste in Washington State, First Annual Status Report, January 1993), Washington has seven regulated incinerator facilities. These facilities are permitted annually by the local jurisdictional health department with review by the State Department of Ecology. Pursuant to the Solid Waste Incinerator and Landfill Operators Act, the State has also developed a landfill and incinerator operator certification program. The Incinerator Ash Residue Act and the rules implementing this Act (Special Incinerator Ash Management Standards) also require municipal solid waste incinerators to have an approved Generator (Ash) Management plan in place. Landfill facilities which receive the ash residue from municipal solid waste incinerators, ash monofills, are also regulated in Washington. The State Department of Ecology has permit authority for ash monofills. Ash monofills in Washington are regulated by Special Incinerator Ash Management Standards which set permitting, construction and operating standards for ash monofills. These standards are generally more stringent than standards for municipal solid waste landfills. Washington has three ash monofill landfills (Solid Waste in Washington State, First Annual Report). In 1991, monofills in Washington disposed 45,851 tons of incinerator ash. According to Washington State officials, in 1992, 468,000 tons of municipal waste was incinerated statewide. McMurdo's total annual accumulation of food waste comprises only .01% of the annual waste incinerated in the State of Washington, an inconsequential quantity. The State incinerator facilities have the capacity to dispose of McMurdo's waste, and this incremental quantity of waste would have a negligible environmental impact. Costs Normally, USAP spends $1.8 million for the Greenwave's single trip to McMurdo. A double shuttle would cost the Government an additional $3 million for the additional ship time, charter of commercial shipping services from New Zealand, additional stevedoring, and extended deployment of the Coast Guard icebreaker to provide ice escort service to the Greenwave. The Greenwave's port of call is Port Hueneme, California. It will take approximately 15 days of additional vessel time to transport the waste to Seattle, offload the waste, and return the vessel to Port Hueneme, a cost of approximately $390,000 ($26,000 per day). Since U.S.D.A. regulations require the food waste to be sterilized or incinerated upon entry into the United States, the food waste will either be incinerated and landfilled, or sterilized by composting. Either method of disposal would cost approximately $176.50 per ton, or $17,650 per year. Public Health Because the food waste would be transported in refrigerated vans, the public health risk to personnel on the ship is negligible. The public health risk from disposal in the United States is also negligible. Alternative A3. Retrograde food wastes to New Zealand. This alternative would require the concurrence of the host country, taking into account public opinion surrounding such a retrograde. USAP has discussed with New Zealand representatives the possibility of continuing to retrograde food waste to New Zealand for landfilling or incineration. 1991-1992 Austral Summer Season. At the beginning of the 1991- 1992 austral summer season (October 3, 1991), the Senior U.S. Representative Antarctica declared that a critical, emergency situation with respect to accumulated food-related wastes existed at McMurdo Station. Approximately 31,500 kilograms (70,000 pounds or 35 tons) of food-related wastes had accumulated since the close of the 1990-1991 season. In addition, the food-related waste was thawing due to the rise in temperature, and the influx of austral summer personnel had begun. Due to budgetary developments, the USAP faced the possibility of being shut down on short notice. The USAP needed to take swift action to ensure the proper disposal of the accumulated waste in the event of an unplanned evacuation. USAP staff in Washington, Christchurch and at McMurdo Station were tasked with investigating options for processing or disposal of this waste, and choosing and implementing a workable option under these emergency conditions. Discussions between the NSF Representative, New Zealand and the Christchurch City Council on these emergency circumstances led to an agreement, subject to the approval of the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) for a shipment of food-related waste to be retrograded from McMurdo Station to Christchurch, New Zealand. The MAF granted USAP a permit (R91/BIO/347) to retro- grade food wastes to Christchurch. On October 23, 1991, eighty- six (86) food waste filled triwall cardboard containers were retrograded to Christchurch. The waste load weighed approxi- mately 32,814 kilograms (72,920 pounds) [31,082 net kilograms (69,070 net pounds)]. The operation was successful with all parties stating satisfaction with the outcome. A second shipment of similar food waste weighing about 9,000 kilograms (20,000 pounds, 10 tons), which eliminated the backlog, was made on November 14, 1991. This shipment experienced some thawing of the frozen waste with subsequent leakage apparent from 4 of 24 triwall boxes. Solutions to this problem of containment of any future shipments offered at the time were to: 1) enclose each triwall box in plastic; and 2) deliver leak-proof dumpsters to McMurdo. Subsequent discussions and correspondence (Christchurch City Council 1991; National Science Foundation Representative, New Zealand 1991a) between the NSF Representative, New Zealand and the Christchurch City Council led the USAP to request approval for the retrograde of an additional three to four shipments between December 19, 1991 and February 22, 1992. An agreement was reached wherein USAP would be allowed to retrograde food- related wastes to Christchurch, New Zealand until October 16, 1994. In addition, two analysts from the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries visited and inspected food operations at McMurdo Station between November 29-30, 1991 (National Science Foundation Representative, New Zealand 1991b). The audit report prepared by the analysts indicate that the retrograde of food- related wastes from McMurdo Station, Antarctica should entail insignificant risks of exposing New Zealand biota to exotic disease agents. Also, they recommended that the permit (R91/BIO/347) remain in force subject to monitoring of each consignment to ensure compliance with conditions of the permit. 1992 Winterover Period. Food-related wastes generated by the 280 personnel on station during the 1992 winterover period (182 days) was estimated at about 0.68-0.90 kilograms per person per day (1.5-2.0 pounds). Continuing problems associated with efficient processing of food-related wastes in the temporary incinerator, delays in bringing the interim incinerator to full operation, and a decision not to use the Scott Base incinerator during that period led to accumulating food-related wastes as during the 1991 winterover period. By July 12, 1992, the NSF Representative on station estimated there were 65 triwall cardboard boxes (about 21 metric tons) of combustible food-related waste at McMurdo. He projected that this number of food-related waste filled triwall boxes would rise to about 114 (about 40 metric tons) by the beginning of October 1992. On October 2, 1992, 59 triwall boxes of food-related wastes were retrograded to New Zealand, using C-5 air transport. The weight of the shipment was about 28,200 kilograms (62,665 pounds, 31 tons). TABLE 6 Dates and Amounts of Food Waste Retrograded to New Zealand for Landfill Disposal Dates Approximate Weight in Kilograms (Tons) October 23, 1991 31,500 kilograms (35) November 14, 1991 9,000 kilograms (10) October 2, 1992 27,000 kilograms (30) Total 67,500 kilograms (75) Current Situation. Although USAP has a permit from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries until October, 1994, USAP also needs approval from local officials to dispose of the food waste at landfill sites. In the past, USAP has obtained permission from local officials to retrograde the food waste to New Zealand on a case by case basis. USAP has discussed the possibility of retrograding food waste to New Zealand on a more regular basis with New Zealand and local officials. This waste could be either landfilled or incinerated in the Christchurch vicinity. NSF utilized space available on aircraft departing from McMurdo to Christchurch in October, 1993, to transport approximately 80 tons of the current 1993 winter season backlog of food waste to Christchurch for disposal. Logistical considerations. Space available on existing aircraft could be used to transport food waste to New Zealand in October and November in any given year while the ice runway is in operation. Food wastes could also be shipped to New Zealand on the annual supply ship in February. The food waste would have to be stockpiled outside during the winter-over period and then again between November and February, once the ice runway closed. In addition, USAP would need to transport the food waste in a frozen state to avoid leakage, a government condition for retrograde. If the food waste were retrograded by ship, freezer containers would be required. Environmental Effects McMurdo and Environs Retrograding food waste to New Zealand by aircraft and/or supply ship would have a positive effect on the McMurdo environment because disposal would occur outside the Antarctic Treaty area. Stockpiling problems could be mitigated by storing the waste in any available shipping containers or by combining this method of disposal with retrograde to the United States on the annual supply ship. Outside of Antarctica The total annual person days at McMurdo Station is approximately 220,000, while the total annual person days in Christchurch, New Zealand, is approximately 100 million. Assuming that the food waste production is similar at both locations, McMurdo's food waste would represent no more than 0.5% of that produced by Christchurch. This increase in food waste is negligible and would have no discernable environmental effect. Costs Based on inquiries, the cost of incineration in New Zealand greatly exceeds the cost of incineration in the United States. However, the transportation costs should be significantly less as the incremental cost ($390,000) for the ship to carry waste beyond California for disposal in Washington would not be incurred. Public Health New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries officials visited McMurdo Station to examine the food waste prior to issuing a permit. They determined that retrograding the food waste to New Zealand would not pose an undue health risk. Alternative A4. Retrograde food wastes by open ocean dumping outside of the Antarctic Treaty Area. Open ocean dumping of food waste (i.e., pulped trash and pulped garbage) would be permissible under the Marine Plastic Pollution Research and Control Act of 1987 (P.L. 100-220, Title II) if done beyond 50 nautical miles of 60øS. However, the USAP has adopted a policy against such practices. Environmental Effects McMurdo and Environs Same as Alternative A2. Outside Antarctica Food waste would be introduced into the ocean. Costs Some costs would be associated with pulping the trash and removing plastics. Public Health USAP does not anticipate any public health risks associated with ocean dumping. Alternative A5. Retrograde food wastes to the United States via Aircraft. This alternative would retrograde all food waste by aircraft to the U.S. for disposal. Under this alternative, C-141s would be used because they are more readily available than other aircraft and have demonstrated their ability to perform such tasks. Retrograding could take place only during the approximately eight weeks the ice runway is open to wheeled aircraft (from October to the first week in December). Disposal in the U.S. would follow the same procedures as previously discussed in Alternative A2. During the austral summer season, USAP aircraft play an important role in deploying personnel, supplying Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station and McMurdo Station with provisions and fuel, and otherwise supporting scientific research. Runway and parking space for aircraft at McMurdo is already overtaxed by previously scheduled flights. Each of the essential activities supported by currently scheduled flights would have to be significantly curtailed to make room for flights retrograding food wastes. Environmental Effects McMurdo and Environs Retrograding food waste to the U.S. by aircraft would have a positive effect on the McMurdo environment because disposal would occur outside the Antarctic Treaty area. The additional flights departing McMurdo would require that additional fuel be transported, stored, and transferred to the aircraft at McMurdo, providing some additional risk of petroleum spills. In addition, there would be additional fuel consumption and associated air emissions. Outside of Antarctica This alternative would increase the consumption of fuel for flights from New Zealand to the United States. Otherwise, the impacts would be the same discussed in Alternative A2. Costs This alternative has a high cost. Aircraft would have to be secured through the Air Mobility Command which may not give this mission a high priority. This alternative is much more costly than retrograding by ship and offers no environmental benefits. Public Health Food handling could pose a health risk if food was allowed to warm above freezing. B. Alternatives Studied and Eliminated From Further Evaluation In the development of this environmental assessment, the following alternatives were considered and eliminated from further evaluation: oAlternative B1. Incinerate food wastes in three-chambered incineration system; oAlternative B2. Incinerate food wastes in both the temporary two-chambered incinerator and the three-chambered incinerator; oAlternative B3. Utilize the two-chambered incinerator at New Zealand's Scott Base; o Alternative B4. Ice staging or ocean dumping within the Antarctic Treaty Area of food wastes accumulated at McMurdo Station; or oAlternative B5. Open Burning. Alternative B1. Incinerate food wastes in three-chambered incineration system. The alternatives in section B, like the alternatives discussed in section A, would include disposal of small volumes of liquid wastes within the wastewater system, waste reduction methods, sorting of solid food wastes, and placement of solid food wastes in temporary storage. Note that the no action alternative in section A would store all waste on-site with no further treatment. The Protocol expressly endorses incineration as a means of disposal in Antarctica. In 1991, NSF ceased open burning of solid wastes at McMurdo Station, as it continued to implement a comprehensive waste management program including segregation, recycling, and waste minimization. During this transition period, NSF adopted incineration as an interim, environmentally preferable method of disposing of food wastes. Meanwhile, USAP continued to examine other alternative methods of disposal and gather additional incineration emissions monitoring data. In March, 1993, NSF halted incineration while it further reviewed options for disposing of food wastes. On June 14, 1993, the Director of the Office of Polar Programs announced that incineration was no longer the proposed action. Interim Incinerator Argonne's National Laboratory's extensive studies of McMurdo's materials and waste characteristics strongly suggested that incineration would be the most practical, reliable, and cost effective method of processing McMurdo's food-related wastes (i.e., in the context of antarctic operations) in an environmentally-compatible manner. Based on Argonne's recommendation and various environmental assessments, USAP decided to install an interim incinerator at McMurdo in 1991 to dispose of food and food-related wastes as an interim measure, while continuing to examine other long-term options for disposal of food wastes. According to waste management studies performed by Argonne (Argonne National Laboratory 1992), and based upon engineering design, technical and operational specifications developed by Antarctic Support Associates, Inc., a high-temperature thermal oxidation system (i.e., interim incinerator) was fabricated by Brule Engineering of Blue Island, IL. As described in the August 2, 1991 EIA, the incinerator system was designed to destroy food-waste related organic matter through the use of a high-temperature oxidation combustion process. The incinerator included a third combustion chamber to reduce oxides of nitrogen produced by burning. In addition, a gas clean-up system scrubbed acid gases from exit gases and filtered out remaining particulates. The incinerator system had opacity, SO2/NO and O2 monitors. The system also included components which prepare the appropriate feedstock and collect ash residues. (Figure 2). The incinerator system was designed to achieve 99.99% destruction of all organics. A detailed description of the interim incinerator system may be found in the August 2, 1991 EIA. Performance Acceptance Testing. ASA ordered the incinerator from Brule Engineering on condition that it be operationally tested in the U.S. prior to shipment to Antarctica. Clean Air Engineering of Palatine, IL was employed by Antarctic Support Associates, Inc. to conduct performance acceptance testing of the interim incinerator. The performance acceptance testing took place on November 8, 1991. Emissions-related parameters estimated included levels of particulate, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and opacity. Operations-related parameters included process conditions, and time. Over an 8.5 hour time period consisting of two runs, about 1800 pounds of waste were oxidized. The waste burned during the test was designed to simulate McMurdo Station waste. (Clean Air Engineering, 1991) The acceptance test burn system did not include any of the post- incineration components that were installed at the McMurdo Station facility, including the dry scrubber, bag house, heat exchanger, and induced draft fan. In particular, the lack of the induced draft fan precluded attaining the desired combustion temperature of 1600 degrees. The average temperature during the test burn was 1350 degrees F. The emissions from the installed incinerator system were expected to be significantly lower than the results of the acceptance test, as a result of the addition in Antarctica of these emission control devices. insert fig. 2 Table 7 contains the results of the performance acceptance testing. Table 8 contains the EPA standards of performance for municipal waste combustors. These EPA standards apply to incinerators located in the United States with a capacity to burn at least 250 tons per day of waste. In contrast, the McMurdo incinerator has a capacity to burn less than two tons per day. However, because EPA standards do not yet exist for smaller incinerator systems, USAP utilized these emission standards as guidelines. Table 9 converts the performing acceptance testing data to a form comparable to those guideline emission standards. All of the testing parameters were within the guideline emission standards except for particulates. NSF expected the subsequent installation of the pollution control components (dry scrubber and baghouse) at McMurdo Station to significantly lower the level of particulate emissions. McMurdo Station Feedstock. As noted in the August 2, 1991 EIA, the interim incinerator included a system to provide for the inspection and removal of unsuitable items from the feedstock. Feedstock items were limited to food waste (i.e., preparation wastes, plate scrapings), food-related waste (e.g., napkins, food packaging materials), and selected wastes from dormitories and other administrative buildings (e.g., tissues, paper towels, and other similar wastes). USAP added human fecal material from field camps to the incinerator feedstock because of the difficulty experienced with disposal by other alternatives. This reduced handling and health risks, as well as problems with introducing the frozen waste into the wastewater macerator. The addition of this relatively small quantity of waste to the feedstock did not adversely impact on the incinerator emissions because fecal materials are residues of food from digestion. Pollution producing materials were removed from the incinerator feedstock. Prohibited items included materials known to contain concentrations of toxic metals, such as batteries, metal scrap and cans including aerosol cans, and newspaper and magazine paper. Any item containing polyvinyl chloride (PVC) were excluded from the feedstock. This includes plastics containing PVC and high concentrations of chlorine. High-density plastics were also excluded. TABLE 7 Parameters and Results of Performance Acceptance Testing Interim Incinerator [Using Methods 3A, 5, 7E, 9 and 10] Run 1 Run 2 Average Start Time (approx.) 1:04 pm 3:50 pm Stop Time (approx.) 2:21 pm 4:55 pm Process Conditions Auxiliary Burners Kerosene Usage (gal/hr) 5 5 Main Incinerator Maximum Waste Burn Rate (lb/hr) 300 300 Chamber Temperature (§F) 1350 1350 Gas Conditions Temperature (§F) 1256 1258 1257 Moisture (volume %) 8.9 7.9 8.4 O2 (dry volume %) 11.7 13.1 12.4 CO2 (dry volume %) 7.5 5.5 6.5 Volumetric Flow Rate acfm 2635 2643 2639 dscfm 735 745 740 Particulate gr/dscf 0.0203 0.0219 0.0211 lb/hr 0.128 0.140 0.134 Nitrogen Oxides ppm 77 79 78 lb/hr 0.404 0.424 0.414 Opacity Percent 5 5 5 Carbon Monoxide ppm 39 10 25 lb/hr 0.125 0.033 0.079 * The acceptance test burn system did not include any of the post-incineration components that were installed at the McMurdo Station facility, including the dry scrubber, bag house, heat exchanger, and induced draft fan. TABLE 8 Summary of "Standards of Performance for Municipal Waste Combustors" [From 56 Federal Register 5506; February 1991] Parameters Emissions Limit Test and Section and Section ------------------ ------------------------ ------------------- Dioxins/Furans 30 ng/dscm Method 23 S 60.53 S 60.58d(1) Particulate Matter 34 mg/dscm Methods 1,3 & 5 S 60.52a S 60.58b(1), (2) and (3) Opacity 10 % Method 9 (Opacity S 60.52 (b) Limit) S 60.58b(7) Oxygen No Limit Method 5 [Either S 60.58b(3) Oxygen or Carbon Dioxide must be run simultaneously with Method 5 Carbon Dioxide No Limit S 60.58b(3) Sulfur Dioxide 80 % reduction or Method 19, S 5.4 30 ppm, whichever Method 19, S 4.3 is less stringent S 60.58e(1) & (2) S 60.54a Hydrogen Chloride 95 % reduction or Method 26 25 ppm, whichever S 60.58f(2) is less stringent S 60.54d Nitrogen Oxides 180 ppm Method 19, S 4.1 S 60.55a S 60.58g(1) Carbon Monoxide 50 ppm No Method Listed; S 60.56a S 60.58h requires CEMS ----------------- ----------------- ------------------- Although these standards apply to incinerators in the U.S. with a larger volume than the Interim Incinerator, USAP has utilized these EPA emissions standards as guidelines. TABLE 9 Conversion of Performance Acceptance Testing Data to Form Comparable to Standards of Performance for Municipal Waste Combustors Parameter Actual Corrected to Emission Reading 7 % Oxygen Dry Standard Particulate 0.0211 gr/dscf 0.0345 gr/dscf 0.015 gr/dscf 47.8 mg/dscm 78.2 mg/dscm Nitrogen 78 ppm 128 ppm 180 ppm Oxides (NOx) Carbon 25 ppm 41 ppm 50 ppm Monoxide (CO) Opacity 5% no correction 10% Conversion Equation: Where C = Concentration of Parameter Corrected To 7 Percent Oxygen On A Dry Basis CS = Measured Concentration of Parameter O2 = Oxygen Content of Gas = 12.4% (Dry Volume) Example Calculation: NOx = 78 ppm (20.9 - 7) / (20.9 - 12.4) = 128 ppm Minimization of Dioxins and Furans. While any act of combustion produces trace quantities of dioxins and furans (Dioxins and furans are polychlorinated dibenzo-para-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans. All are solids at ambient temperature with high melt- ing and boiling points and limited solubility in water.)as unwanted by-products (Acharya, et al. 1991), their control in incineration technologies relies on control of the nature of the feedstock as well as of the combustion process. While scientific opinion on the human health and environmental risks of dioxins and furans is, as yet, inconclusive (Gallo, et al. 1991; Roberts 1991), the USAP designed the incinerator system to minimize their generation. The interim incinerator was engineered to provide design features that include components allowing human feedstock item discrimination, combustion controls, high temperature, and gas monitors which effectively minimize the formation of dioxins and furans. Chlorine in the feedstock is of primary concern in the formation of dioxins and furans. To reduce the amount of chlorine: (1) polyvinyl chloride containing items and chemically-treated lumber were excluded from the feedstock; and (2) the incineration system itself was designed without copper in the ducting or components in the heat recovery and gas cleanup systems to catalyze the formation of dioxins and furans; and (3) a baghouse and dry gas scrub was included. Installation of Interim Incinerator. The combustion chamber components arrived at McMurdo in December, 1991, but additional critical components of the incinerator system did not arrive until late February, 1992. During March and April 1992, USAP installed various components of the incinerator system and completed fabrication of supporting facilities. Combustion chamber firing and testing began in May, 1992. Installation progressed slower than scheduled due to necessary modifications to ancillary equipment and limited space in the enclosing structure. Construction and installation of supporting equipment continued during May and June, 1992. Determining the best mix of wet and dry feedstocks was important to operation of the incinerator. The feedstock mix consisted of approximately 0.7 pounds of galley waste to each pound of dry burnable waste. This resulted in a capacity of approximately 220 pounds per hour. At that burn rate, during the austral summer when the McMurdo population is at peak, the interim incinerator was operated two eight-hour shifts per day. During the winter season, the incinerator was operated much less frequently. ASA established numerous procedures for operating the interim incinerator, including safety guidelines (such as hearing and eye protection) and data collection. During incinerator operation, the operators continuously recorded temperatures in the incinerator chambers, temperatures at various points in the duct work between the incinerator and the stack exit, pressures, and charge rates. In late July and August 1992, testing with representative waste began, and problems were experienced with the conveyors, shredders, and mills feeding materials to the incinerator chambers (Figure 2). Work on required modifications continued into November to increase the system's efficiency. Interim Incinerator Emissions Testing. Although some testing was performed in the U.S. as part of acceptance tests, both operational and emissions testing continued in the Antarctic. 1. Stack Emission Testing. No U.S. emissions standards exist for incinerators with as small a capacity as that of the interim incinerator. As noted earlier, USAP chose to use EPA standards for larger municipal solid waste incinerators (greater than 250 tons per day) located in the United States as guidelines for evaluating the performance of the interim incinerator. These standards are found at 56 Federal Register 5506 (February, 1991). To evaluate emissions from the incinerator, USAP's civilian contractor engaged a testing firm certified in: (1) incinerator performance acceptance testing (previously discussed); and (2) the sampling, analysis and interpretation of incinerator stack gas emissions. The continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS) became operational in mid-November, and monitored the incinerator emission for oxygen, opacity, and nitric oxide, and sulfur dioxide. The emissions testing subcontractor certified the accuracy of the CEMS, and it was routinely operated by ASA contract employees. During operation of the incinerator, the operators continuously recorded readings from the CEMS. In November, 1992, USAP, utilizing the CEMS, reported testing results for opacity, sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides. The results for sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides were well within acceptable standards. With respect to opacity, two readings exceeded the standards--one was attributable to an equipment failure and the other to a testing error. The contractor reports that the Dynatron 1100M Opacity Monitor installed on the stack had read zero or one percent over 95% of the time since installation in mid-November. USAP collected additional CEMS data during December, 1992 (Table 10). The CEMS data for the parameters of opacity, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide emissions are analyzed for 21 days of intermittent operation in December. Table 11 gives a summary of the parameters calculated from the data for comparison with EPA standards for larger MWC's. Data points were not used if the charge time was less than zero, indicating that no waste was being burned. These data points correspond to the start-up or shut-down periods exempted by E.P.A. regulations for larger MWC's in the U.S. Opacity: Gases discharged from a large MWC must exhibit an opacity no greater than 10%. Figure 3 shows that with the exception of the December 5, 7, and 8, readings of zero opacity were obtained for all other days. All daily averages were well below the 10% limit. It is noted that the 10% standard is a 6- minute average, but the CEMS data is collected usually at half- hour intervals. Misalignment of the opacity monitor can occur when the instrument temperature exceeds 1300 degrees F. During table 10 table 11 fig. 3 occurrences of high opacity readings, no visible emissions were ever observed coming from the stack. Nitrogen Oxygen Emissions: Gases discharged from a large MWC shall not contain greater than 180 parts per million by volume nitrogen oxides corrected to 7% oxygen on a dry basis. The average arithmetic daily values (NO_AVG) are calculated, then the following formula is used to correct this value to 77% on a dry basis (NO_7PER(dry)): NO_7PER(dry) = NO_AVG x [13.9/(20.9 - O2_AVG)]/.97 This formula assumes the moisture content is 3%. Figure 4 gives the daily average values for December. The nitrogen oxide emission standard was exceeded 4 out of the 21 days of operation with a daily average for all operating days for the month of December equal to 132.86 ppmv. The days that the standard was exceeded were in succession at the beginning of the month. The highest daily average for NOx of 88.27 was recorded on December 8, 1992 (corresponding to a value of 211.54 ppm NO_7PER). If the relative accuracies for NOx and O2 were applied to this value, at the lower limit the NOx value (corrected for moisture and 7% oxygen) would be under the MWC standard of 180 ppmv. This point is made to show that the nitrogen oxide emissions for December are very close to the standard. Even though four of the twenty-one NOx values exceeded the performance standard, by applying the accuracy measurements they would be in compliance. It is noted that the SM8100A CEMS which measures nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide was calibrated on December 10, 1992 and after this calibration was performed, the nitrogen oxide levels for the remainder of the month were below the standard level. Sulfur Dioxide Emissions. After the initial compliance test is completed, discharges of SO2 from a large MWC plant in the U.S. shall not exceed 30 parts per million by volume, corrected to 7% oxygen (dry basis). For MWCs that do not run continuously, compliance is determined by using a daily geometric mean of all hourly average values for the hours during the day that the affected facility is combusting MSW. The geometric mean daily values are calculated, then the following formula is used to correct this value to 7% oxygen on a dry basis: SO2_7PER(dry) = SO2_PER x [13.9/(20.9 - O2_AVG)]/.97 The above assumes that the moisture content is 3%. Figure 5 gives the daily geometric averages for December. There were no Fig. 4 Fig. 5 values which exceeded the 20 ppmv standard, and the daily average for the 21 days of operation in December was 16.9 ppmv. The emissions subcontractor conducted additional stack monitoring testing for CO2, opacity, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, particulate emissions, hydrochloric acid, lead, cadmium, mercury, dioxins and furans in early December, 1992, in accordance with the E.P.A. new source performance standards for municipal solid waste incinerators located in the U.S. greater than 250 tons per day. EPA provided specialized dioxin and furan sampling supplies to USAP for INEL's use at McMurdo Station. This testing was completed on December 10, 1992 and the samples were shipped to EPA laboratories in North Carolina for analysis. The EPA standards apply to incinerators with a capacity to burn at least 250 tons per day of waste and the McMurdo incinerator has a capacity to burn less than two tons per day. However, these reference standards are the most stringent federal U.S. standards published to date and are useful for comparison. Regulatory standards do not exist for two of the nine parameters tested: total hydrocarbons and PM-10. Results for five of the parameters tested met the referenced regulatory standards for particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and trace metals. Results for two of the parameters, hydrogen chloride and dioxins, exceeded the comparative standards and were higher than anticipated. (See Table 11). EPA standards provide two different methods for complying with hydrogen chloride levels; a procedure for sampling incinerator emission stack sampling (the method used by INEL), and a procedure which compares HCl levels before and after the dry scrubbing system. In the latter case, a relative rather than an absolute standard applies, i.e. a 95% reduction in HCl is required. Normally, a dry scrubber removes SO2 prior to HCl. The very low levels of SO2 emissions imply that the dry scrubber is achieving the 95% reduction in HCl. However, the testing contractor did not perform this second test. A variety of steps could be taken to reduce the dioxin/furan levels. Reducing the levels of paper in the feedstock, operation of the incinerator at higher temperatures, and installing new methods for stoking and mixing the waste in the incinerator would help maintain proper air flow and temperatures throughout the incinerator cycle. Installation of a glass viewing port would allow observation of the primary combustion chamber without disrupting air flow. Staffing of the incineration to allow continuous operation would reduce emissions produced during lower temperatures during start-up and shut-down. Improvements to the lime scrubbing systems such as changing to a wet or semi-wet system and adding substances such as charcoal would further decrease dioxin emissions. Disposition of McMurdo Station Ash. All residual ash generated from the incinerator is removed from McMurdo Station pursuant to provisions of the Antarctic Treaty. As tasked by the NSF, DOD established a contract with a waste disposal firm to properly dispose of the ash in accordance with applicable State and Federal law. The incinerator system produced two types of ash; fly ash and bottom ash. Fly ash includes particles entrained in the incinerator exhaust gas and unreacted lime from the gas scrubber. Fly ash was collected by filters in the interim incinerator baghouse; on a time basis a burst of compressed air backflowed through the filter bags shaking off collected gas. The fly ash then fell into two hoppers at the base of the baghouse which funneled the ash into 55 gallon drums. These drums were connected to the baghouse by an airtight system to prevent fly ash from becoming airborne. Fly ash levels in the drum were checked by the operators routinely. Once the drums were over 3/4 full, they were removed, closed, labeled and sent to the waste yard for removal from Antarctica. Approximately 1300 pounds of fly ash and discarded baghouse filters were returned to the United States in February 1993 on the M/V Greenwave. These materials are a Department of Transportation regulated corrosive solid material and were first shipped to the contractor's storage, transfer and disposal facility in Reedsville, North Carolina and then sent to a secure landfill in Pinewood, South Carolina. Bottom ash is composed of non-combustible material left in the furnace and is removed from the incinerator prior to each start- up. The ash was scraped off the top of the primary chamber grate, and off the floor of each chamber through access doors in the back of the incinerator. The bottom ash was scraped into a rectangular funnel that extends from a 55 gallon drum. After the ash in the drum cooled, it was transferred into triwall containers for removal from Antarctica. A little over 31,000 pounds of bottom ash was returned to the United States on the MV/Greenwave in February, 1993. This material is a non-RCRA California state regulated waste. Ash was fully characterized and was acceptable for storage, transport, and disposal in the United States. It was shipped to the contractor's transferring facility in Millington, Tennessee and disposed of in a landfill in Memphis, Tennessee. Costs. As discussed above, the incinerator has not been operated since March 22, 1993. If NSF were to decide to operate the incinerator again, several costs would have to be expended. First, NSF would need to replace the existing heat exchanger because it is damaged. This would cost approximately $30,000. Second, NSF would incur costs implementing methods to reduce dioxin levels, such as installing a glass viewing port, and improving the lime scrubbing system. In addition, NSF would retest the incinerator to ensure that the mitigation steps actually resulted in lower dioxin emissions and that the emissions meet HCl guidelines. The total cost to restart the incinerator is estimated to be $200,000. Environmental Effects. As noted above, the Protocol specifically endorses incineration as an environmentally acceptable means of waste disposal in Antarctica. Ambient air quality monitoring data was gathered between November 1992 and February 1993. The interim incinerator was in operation during this time period and is located near the Hut Point monitoring site. This data indicates that the concentrations of SO2, NO2, and CO at all three monitoring locations at McMurdo were below all applicable U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). SO2, NO, NO2, and NOx were detected at both Hut Point and Central McMurdo in the low parts per billion (ppb) range. The localized impact of vehicle and ship emissions on the ambient concentrations of SO2 and NOx were observed at Hut Point. CO levels at both locations were near or below the 0.1 ppm level of detection. The Interpoll and CEMS monitoring data indicates that the interim incinerator emissions for sulfur dioxide, opacity and nitrogen oxides are below the guidelines for incinerator emissions and meet the design specifications. The interim incinerator would contribute an approximate 1% addition to the SO2 concentrations at McMurdo. The Interpoll data also demonstrated that the incinerator emissions for carbon monoxide and trace metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury were also below the guidelines. The Interpoll incinerator emission testing results for dioxins and HCl levels, however, were higher than the guidelines. A second test measuring the HCl reduction achieved by the dry scrubber is likely to demonstrate that the dry scrubber is achieving a 95% reduction. Although, as discussed above, NSF could take steps to mitigate the levels of dioxin emissions and reduce their environmental impact, the Director of the Office of Polar Programs stated on June 14, 1993 that incineration would no longer be the proposed action. Alternative B2. Incinerate food wastes in both the temporary, two-chambered incinerator and the three-chambered incinerator. After the closing of the Fortress Rocks landfill in February of 1991 and the cessation of open burning, USAP was confronted with the problem of a growing backlog of food-related waste. Following preparation of environmental documentation assessing the possible impacts, USAP authorized the incineration of food and food-related wastes in a temporary incinerator on June 14, 1991. The temporary incinerator is described in the August 2, 1991 EIA. Operation testing of the temporary incinerator and engineering changes continued to be made throughout the 1991 winterover period. Even with some incineration of food and food- related wastes occurring, these wastes continued to accumulate throughout the 1991 winterover period as the two chamber incinerator lacked the capacity to handle the total volume of food waste. The August 2, 1991 EIA determined that the temporary incinerator lacked the capacity to address the entire food waste requirements of McMurdo Station. This was confirmed at season opening when food and food-related waste was being produced at McMurdo Station at the rate of about 10 dumpsters per day but the temporary incinerator was able to process this food and food-related waste at a rate of only 4 dumpsters per day. On August 2, 1991, USAP decided to utilize the temporary incinerator until the interim incineration system became operational. Temporary Incinerator Emissions Testing. On January 7, 1992, a combustion analyzer probe was placed in the exhaust gas stack of the Temporary Incinerator to monitor three parameters: percent oxygen, carbon monoxide, and temperature (Table 12). The Temporary Incinerator had been pre-heated using its auxiliary fuel burners. Testing was done as three loads of waste were fed into the incinerator and as each of these loads completed burning. TABLE 12 Results of Temporary Incinerator Emissions Testing Performed at McMurdo Station on January 7, 1992 Time Percent CO Combustion Temp Remarks Oxygen(ppm) Efficiency (§F) 0915 First load of waste added. 0920 13.0 950 0921 0.7 3530 --- 1180 Waste loaded. 0922 3.8 3528 --- 0924 14.3 1860 67% 0925 0.6 3167 --- Waste loaded 0926 3330 1132 0930 3549 Air compressor turned on. Key: CO = Carbon monoxide ppm = parts per million --- = display shown on analyzer In January, 1992, a fan was installed on the stack to improve draft. Use of the fan in combination with feeding waste into the charge hopper at a steady, controlled rate rather than overstuffing the hopper, raised the oxygen levels high and lowered the emissions levels. In November, 1992, stack opacity of the temporary incinerator averaged five percent. Environmental Effects. Although there have been some improvements in minimizing the emissions output from the temporary incinerator, it remains inferior to the interim incinerator because the latter has a third chamber, gas clean-up system which reduces the emissions of particulates or pollutants, and an extensive continuous monitoring system. After the interim incinerator became fully operational, the temporary incinerator was deactivated. Use of this incinerator is inappropriate in view of the more efficient interim incinerator, were incineration in Antarctica deemed to be a preferred alternative for disposing of McMurdo food waste. Alternative B3. Utilize the two-chambered incinerator at New Zealand's Scott Base. One of the alternatives (Alternative II-E) examined in the August 2, 1991 EIA was to utilize the two-chambered incinerator regularly used at Scott Base by the New Zealand Antarctic Programme. This base is about two miles from the McMurdo Station and is about one-twentieth the size of the U.S. Station. The capacity of this incinerator is 680 pounds per 8 hour day. The Scott Base incinerator specifications are contained in Table 13. Wastes processed by the New Zealand program in their incinerator include: (1) food scraps; (2) paper waste and products; (3) untreated timber; (4) hydroponic plant remains; and (5) low density plastic rubbish bags (containing burnable wastes). Scott Base's Incinerator lacks any emissions control or monitoring equipment (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research 1987; Geddes 1990), but has been used by the New Zealand Antarctic Programme for the processing of combustible wastes including food-related wastes. The installation and operation of the Scott Base incinerator has never been environmentally assessed by the New Zealand Programme. The August 2, 1991 EIA considered the capacity of the Scott Base incinerator inadequate for the total quantity of food-related waste produced at McMurdo. It was recognized, however, that a portion of that waste might be processed at Scott Base, if permission were granted by the New Zealand Antarctic Programme. During the 1991-1992 austral summer research season, New Zealand officials granted USAP permission to use Scott Base's two- chambered incinerator to allow the processing of a rapidly TABLE 13 Scott Base Incinerator Specifications Component Specification Primary Chamber Total Capacity 1.5 cubic meters Waste Capacity 1.2 cubic meters Waste Type Paper, wet kitchen garbage, plastics Type '2' Calorific Value 9400 Kilojoules/Kilogram Capacity for Burning 310 Kilograms/hour/day Fuel Type Arctic Diesel Burners Primary - Type Nuway C2 - Supplier Heating Services Ltd. - Output 500,000 Kilojoules/hour - Quantity 1 - Nozzle 3 gallons/hour 45 degrees Secondary - Type Nuway C2 - Supplier Heating Services Ltd. - Output 500,000 Kilojoules/hour - Quantity 1 - Nozzle 2.75 gallons/hour 70 degrees Combustion Air Fans MacDonald Industries 200 cubic feet/minute 6 degree w.g. Electrical Control System Supplier Cameron Electrical Voltage 240, 1 ph Component Settings Burn Timer 2MT 60 minutes Burn Out Timer 1MT 150 minutes Primary Temp. Controller Red - 400 degrees C Green - 1000 degrees C Secondary Temp. Controller Red - 1050 degrees C Green - 1200 degrees C Panel Temperature +/- 15 degrees C Panel Low Temperature + 05 degrees C accumulating backlog of food-related wastes. Between November, 1991 and January, 1992, USAP sporadically disposed of some of its food waste in the Scott Base incinerator. The incinerator had difficulty handling the high water content of the food waste, which made the effort highly labor intensive. The NSF Winterover Representative, McMurdo Station, did not continue to process food wastes in the Scott Base incinerator during the 1992 winterover period. This was due to a requirement to have, at least, one waste management worker spend the entire day at Scott Base's incinerator to attend to the processing operation. This could not be done as there were only three waste management workers at McMurdo Station during the 1992 winterover period; and their work schedules at McMurdo Station were full because they were working on the interim incinerator. The NSF Winterover Representative anticipated that McMurdo Station's interim incinerator would be operational shortly, and capable of reducing the accumulating backlog of food-related wastes. McMurdo's interim incinerator did not become operational on May 1, 1992, as originally planned. Although the majority of the backlog was retrograded to New Zealand, a single load of food- related waste was burned at the Scott Base incinerator on September 15, 1992. All ashes were removed from the Scott Base Incinerator and packaged for retrograde to the United States. Environmental Effects. The New Zealand Antarctic Programme was unable to supply any information about the emissions from the Scott Base incinerator and the device does not incorporate any monitoring equipment. The Scott Base incinerator lacks a third chamber and the pollution control equipment found on the interim incinerator system. In addition, based on program experience, the older design and smaller capacity of the Scott Base incinerator clearly preclude its use as a primary means of food- waste disposal for the USAP. Alternative B4. Ice staging or ocean dumping within the Antarctic Treaty Area of food wastes accumulated at McMurdo Station. The USAP has adopted a policy against such practices, making this alternative unavailable. Alternative B5: Open Burning. This alternative is unacceptable to USAP and is less environmentally sound than incineration or retrograde. In addition, it is contrary to the principles of the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty to phase out open burning; when signed in October of 1991, USAP stated that we would make all efforts to voluntarily comply with the Protocol until its enters into force. 5.0 RECOMMENDATION The Head, Antarctic Staff, Polar Coordination and Information Section, Office of Polar Programs, recommends cessation of incineration of food wastes at McMurdo Station, and adopting a combination of Alternatives A2 and A3 for management and disposal of food waste at McMurdo Station, which provides as follows: 1) Continue implementation and enhancement of waste minimization. 2) Continue grinding, maceration, dilution and discharge into the Ross Sea of limited amounts of liquid food wastes and water with food waste residue, with impact monitoring; 3) Retrograde waste to the United States on the annual supply ship. 4) Retrograde waste to New Zealand on aircraft or on the annual supply ship. 5) Examine feasibility and environmental compatibility of using composting, pelletizing or other methods of on-site processing to reduce the quantity of food and food- related waste retrograded to the U.S. and New Zealand. /s/ Tom Forhan January 5, 1994 _________________________ ____________________ Thomas F. Forhan Date Head, Antarctic Staff, Polar Coordination and Information Section, Office of Polar Programs National Science Foundation 6.0 PREPARERS AND INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED IN PREPARATION OF THIS EA Carol Andrews, Environmental Engineer, Antarctic Support Associates (ASA) Paul Berkman, Safety and Occupational Health Division, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Logistics) Environmental Protection Department of the Navy David Bresnahan, Systems Manager Operations and Logistics, Polar Operations Section, OPP, NSF Arthur J. Brown, Head, Safety, Environmental & Health Implementation Team, Polar Operations Section, OPP, NSF James Chambers, Deputy Project Director, Continental Systems, ASA Shih-Cheng Chang, Environmental Engineer, Polar Operations Section, OPP, NSF Alan B. Crockett, Center for Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, EG&G Idaho, Inc. Robert Cunningham, NEPA Compliance Manager, Polar Coordination and Information Section, OPP, NSF Erick Chiang, Manager, Polar Operations Section, OPP, NSF Jane V. Dionne, Acting Environmental Officer, OPP, NSF Anita Eisenstadt, Assistant General Counsel, Office of General Counsel (OGC), NSF Thomas F. Forhan, Head, Antarctic Staff, Polar Coordination and Information Section, OPP, NSF Terry Heide, Supervisory Natural Resource Specialist, Bureau of Indian Affairs Terry Johnson, Environmentalist, ASA Eric Juergens, Director, ASA Safety, Environment & Health, ASA Dr. Peter Karasik, Associate NEPA Compliance Manager, Polar Coordination and Information Section, OPP Miriam Leder, Assistant General Counsel, OGC, NSF Robert M. Lugar, Environmental Technology Unit, EG&G Idaho, Inc. Craig Martin, Director, Engineering, ASA Terry Melton, Operations Manager, McMurdo Station, ASA Charles K. Paul, NSF Representative, New Zealand, OPP, NSF Dr. Carol Roberts, Deputy Director, OPP, NSF Walter H. 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Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, Cambridge, England. 46pp. APPENDIX Vegetation near McMurdo Sound, continental Antarctica. Canadian Journal of Botany 51:2339-2346.