Title : NSF 92-134 FACTS ABOUT THE US ANTARCTIC PROGRAM Type : General Publication NSF Org: OD / OPP Date : November 7, 1994 File : nsf92134 Introduction Approximately 2,500 Americans work in and around Antarctica each year in the U.S. Antarctic Program. This National program involves the operation of ships, aircraft, stations, camps, and communications, and it draws upon the resources and scientists of numerous U.S. universities, Federal agencies, and commercial firms. This pamphlet provides a digest of the operation: facilities in Antarctica, objectives, Federal responsibilities (including environmental protection), the substantial international aspects, and a brief history of prior U.S. activities. A final section provides sources of further information. I. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF ANTARCTICA An ice sheet covers all but 2.4 per cent of Antarctica's 14 million square kilometers. At its thickest point the ice sheet is 4,776 meters deep. It averages 2,160 meters thick, making Antarctica the highest continent. This ice is 90 percent of all the world's ice, and it is 70 percent of all the world's fresh water. The Transantarctic Mountains cross the continent, dividing the ice sheet into two parts. The larger, eastern part of the ice sheet rests on land that is mostly above sea level. It has been there for millions of years. The smaller, western part is on land that is mostly below sea level. Other mountain ranges are the Prince Charles Mountains and smaller groups near the coasts. The Antarctic Peninsula has many mountains. The Ellsworth Mountains are Antarctica's tallest; the Vinson Massif is 4,897 meters above sea level. Antarctica's few ice-free areas, generally near the coast, include the McMurdo Dry Valleys of southern Victoria Land, the Bunger Oasis in Wilkes Land, isolated spits of land, and peaks of mountains¾called nunataks¾that are surrounded by ice. Surrounding Antarctica are the southern parts of the Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Indian Oceans. The Antarctic Convergence, which encircles Antarctica roughly 1,500 kilometers off the coast, divides the cold southern water masses and warmer northern waters. An ocean current, the world's largest, moves eastward around the continent at an average speed of about half a knot. Sea ice up to 3 meters thick forms outward from the continent every winter, making a belt 500 to 1,500 kilometers wide. Even in summer the sea ice belt is 150 to 800 kilometers in most places. The area of sea ice varies from 3 million square kilometers in summer to 20 million square kilometers in late winter. Some 200 million years ago Antarctica was joined to South America, Africa, India, and Australia in a single large continent called Gondwanaland. There was no ice sheet, and trees and large animals flourished. Today, only geological formations, coal beds, and fossils remain as clues to Antarctica's warm past. Antarctica is the coldest continent. The world's record low temperature of -89.2oC was recorded there. The mean annual temperature of the interior is -57oC. The coast is warmer. Monthly means at McMurdo Station range from - 28oC in August to -3oC in January. Along the Antarctic Peninsula, temperatures as high as 15oC have been recorded. Some coasts of Antarctica are the windiest places in the world. Winds on the Adélie Coast in the winter of 1912- 1913 averaged 18 meters per second 64 percent of the time, and gusts have been recorded at nearly 90 meters per second. The interior of Antarctica is the world's biggest desert, with the precipitation (if it were melted) averaging under 5 centimeters of water a year. II. CURRENT YEAR-ROUND U.S. STATIONS A. McMurdo (77o51'S 166o40'E) The largest antarctic station, McMurdo is built on the bare volcanic rock of Hut Point Peninsula on Ross Island, the farthest south solid ground that is accessible by ship. The station was established in December 1955. It is the logistics hub of the U.S. Antarctic Program, with a harbor, landing strips on sea ice and shelf ice, and a helicopter pad. Its 85 or so buildings range in size from a small radio shack to large, three-story structures. Repair facilities, dormitories, administrative buildings, a firehouse, power plant, water distillation plant, wharf, stores, clubs, and warehouses are linked by above-ground water, sewer, telephone, and power lines. The Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center at McMurdo was dedicated in November 1991. The laboratory is named in honor of geophysicist and glaciologist Albert P. Crary (1911-1987), the first person to set foot on both the North and South Poles. The new laboratory contains state-of- the-art instrumentation to facilitate research and to advance science and technology. It contains modern personal computers and workstations, a computer-based geographic information system, and a local area network. It has laboratory space, analytical instrumentation, and staging areas for a wide range of scientific disciplines. The laboratory also supports special activities, including environmental monitoring and enforcement, snow and ice mechanics, and meteorology. The facility replaces outdated science buildings that were built as early as 1959. The Crary Lab has five pods built in three phases to make 4,320 square meters of working area. Phase I has a two- story core pod and a biology pod. Phase II has earth sciences and atmospheric sciences pods. Phase III has an aquarium and a dive locker. Other facilities are maintained for atmospheric sciences and other disciplines. Williams Field, a skiway 16 kilometers from McMurdo on the Ross Ice Shelf, is the aerodrome for ski-equipped airplanes. Wheeled airplanes use a harder, smoother runway on sea ice in October and November and into December, when the sea ice usually begins to break up and become unusable. A permanent, hard-ice runway for wheeled planes¾the Pegasus site on the Ross Ice Shelf¾was completed in 1992 and can be used in all but the warmest months. Recorded temperature extremes have been -50oC and 8oC. Annual mean is -18oC; monthly mean temperatures range from - 3oC in January to -28oC in August. Drifting snow can accumulate about 1.5 meters per year, although the station becomes snow-free in summer. Average wind is about 5.1 meters per second; a gust of 52 meters per second was recorded in July 1968. Research is performed at and near McMurdo in marine and terrestrial biology, biomedicine, geology and geophysics, glaciology and glacial geology, meteorology, aeronomy, and upper atmosphere physics. Peak summer population can exceed 1,100; winter population is about 250. The winterers are isolated from late February to late August. Air transportation to New Zealand is frequent between October and February¾the antarctic summer. Local features include Mount Erebus (an active volcano), McMurdo Sound (the station's namesake, named for Lt. Archibald McMurdo of James Clark Ross's 1841 expedition), the Ross Ice Shelf, and the ice-free (dry) valleys of southern Victoria Land. B. Amundsen-Scott South Pole (90oS) Americans have occupied the geographic South Pole continuously since November 1956; the central area of the station was rebuilt in 1975 as a geodesic dome 50 meters wide and 16 meters high that, with 14- by 24-meter steel archways, covers modular buildings, fuel bladders, and equipment. Detached buildings house instruments for monitoring the upper and lower atmosphere and for numerous and complex projects in astronomy and astrophysics. There is an emergency camp. A number of science and berthing structures were added in the 1990s, particularly for astronomy and astrophysics. Some 28 scientists and support personnel winter at the station, and 130 or more people work there during the summer. The station's winter personnel are isolated between mid-February and late October. Recorded temperature has varied between -13.6oC and - 82.8oC. Annual mean is -49oC; monthly means vary from -28oC in December to -60oC in July. Average wind is 5.5 meters per second; peak gust recorded was 24 meters per second. Snow accumulation is about 6-8 centimeters (water equivalent) per year. The station stands at an elevation of 2,835 meters on interior Antarctica's nearly featureless ice sheet, about 2,850 meters thick at that location. Research at the station includes glaciology, geophysics, meteorology, upper atmosphere physics, astronomy, astrophysics, and biomedical studies. The station's name honors Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott, who attained the South Pole in 1911 and 1912. C. Palmer (64o46'S 64o03'W) Palmer Station, on a protected harbor on the southwestern coast of Anvers Island, off the Antarctica Peninsula, is the only U.S. antarctic station north of the Antarctic Circle. The temperature is mild, with monthly averages ranging from -10oC in July and August to 2oC in January and February. The annual mean is -3oC. The extreme range is -31oC to 9oC. It has rained every month at Palmer; in the year ended October 1981 Palmer received 25 centimeters of rain and 36 centimeters (water equivalent) of snowfall. The station, built on solid rock, consists of two major buildings and three small ones plus two large fuel tanks, a helicopter pad, and a dock. Construction was completed in 1968, replacing a prefabricated wood structure (``Old Palmer,'' established in 1965) 2 kilometers away across Arthur Harbor. Old Palmer has been disassembled and removed from Antarctica. Somewhat over 40 people can occupy Palmer in the summer. Wintering population is about 10, although Palmer does not have a long period of winter isolation as do McMurdo and South Pole. Palmer Station is superbly located for biological studies of birds, seals, and other components of the marine ecosystem. It has a large and extensively equipped laboratory and sea water aquaria. In 1990 it was designated by the National Science Foundation as a long term ecological research (LTER) site. Meteorology, upper atmosphere physics, glaciology, and geology also have been pursued at and around Palmer. The station operates in conjunction with a research ship described under Transportation and research platforms, below. Palmer Station is named for Nathaniel B. Palmer, a Connecticut sealer who, on 17 November 1820, during an exploratory voyage ranging southward from the South Shetland Islands, may have been the first person to see Antarctica. (British and Russian ships were in the area at about the same time.) III. SUMMER CAMPS A. Byrd Surface Camp (80oS 120oW) On the site of the former Byrd Station (a major under- snow research facility operated year-round from early 1957 to February 1972) Byrd Surface Camp is operated during the summer as a fuel stop and weather station for planes flying between McMurdo and destinations in West Antarctica. Typical summer population is eight personnel. The camp consists of sled-mounted modules. B. Major camps During some summer seasons, the USA establishes and operates one or more major summer research camps in areas of particular scientific interest. Typically these camps consist of Jamesways (quickly erected structures made of canvas and wood), and they support a population of 40 to 60 during the November-January period. Helicopters or Twin Otter airplanes are taken to the site and used to support local scientific operations. Motor toboggans also are operated. Such camps have been operated in recent years at various locations on the Siple Coast, at ``Beardmore South'' in the central Transantarctic Mountains (1985-1986), northern Victoria Land (1981-1982), the Ellsworth Mountains (1979-1980), at Darwin Glacier in the Transantarctic Mountains (1978-1979), and in the mountains of northern Marie Byrd Land (1977-1978). Geology, geophysics, glacial- geology, glaciology, and terrestrial biology have been pursued at these camps. C. Huts If summer research projects are expected to continue over several seasons at the same location, huts may be erected. Huts can be expected to last for several years, and they provide space, stable working areas, and comfort not achievable with tents. Huts have been used in recent years in Taylor Valley (an ice-free or dry valley in southern Victoria Land) for study of lake ecosystems, at Cape Crozier on Ross Island for population and behavioral studies of penguin rookeries, and near the summit of Mount Erebus for volcanology. Resupply and transport are by helicopter or tracked vehicle from McMurdo Station. D. Tents Small parties requiring temporary shelter use single- or double-walled tents of several designs, both modern and traditional. These designs include the Scott tent, a pyramid shaped tent similar to the design used by Robert F. Scott early in this century. These tents are stable in high winds and can be erected quickly. Cold-weather sleeping bags are used on ground cushions, and cooking is by portable stoves. Tent camps usually are placed or moved by helicopter or motor toboggan. Extended backpacking trips generally are not practical in Antarctica owing to the weight of the equipment and the fuel required to melt ice for water, to cook, and to combat the cold. All tent camps and huts are required to have radios, and they maintain daily contact with the nearest station. IV. FORMER STATIONS (SELECTED) A. Hallett Station (72o19'S 170o13'E) On Cape Hallett on the northeast coast of Victoria Land, Hallett was operated jointly with New Zealand from 1957 to February 1973. The station initially was for geophysics, but after the IGY the predominant discipline was biology. Hallett shared a point of land with a large penguin colony. All components of the station except for a large fuel tank have been removed, and penguins have reoccupied the site. Cape Hallett was named by James Clark Ross for a member of his 1841 expedition. B. Byrd Station (80oS 120oW) Operated year-round from 1957 to 1972, Byrd was a large under-snow facility in Marie Byrd Land for upper atmosphere physics, meteorology, geophysics, and glaciology. It was closed because the scientific usefulness of a facility at the location had diminished and because the increasing snow load was crushing the station. The station's name honors Richard E. Byrd. C. Plateau Station (79o15'S 40o30'E) Plateau was the highest, coldest, and most remote of the U.S. stations. It was operated from December 1965 to January 1969. Situated in the middle of the east antarctic ice plateau at an elevation of 3,625 meters, the station recorded a climate typical of several million square kilometers of central Antarctica. Temperatures ranged from -18.5oC down to -86.2oC, just short of the world record low recorded at the Russian station Vostok, Antarctica. Annual mean at Plateau was -56.4oC. Snow accumulation was about 3 centimeters (water equivalent) a year. Plateau Station was established for meteorology, geophysics, and upper atmosphere physics. The station comprised five prefabricated vans assembled into a building 8 by 25 meters plus an additional van and a Jamesway for emergency shelter. A tower, 32 meters high, was equipped with 10 sensors of wind speed, wind direction, and temperature. Station population was eight during winter. D. Dome C (74o30'S 123o10'E) This camp was comprised of Jamesways, wood-framed and wood-floored buildings covered with insulated canvas blankets that can be erected or disassembled in several hours. The camp was in East Antarctica at an elevation of 3,425 meters. The ice at that location is over 4,200 meters thick. Dome C is one of the three major ice domes of the east antarctic ice sheet (the others are Ridge B and Dome A). Glaciology was the major discipline pursued at Dome C, which was reached by airplane from McMurdo Station. Dome C camp was established in 1974-1975 and used for several years thereafter. E. Siple (75o55'S 83o55'W) In Ellsworth Land at the base of the Antarctic Peninsula, Siple was established in 1969, enlarged and first occupied year-round in 1973, and, because of high snow accumulation that distorted the original structure, built anew in 1979. It reverted to summer-only use in 1985 and was closed in 1988. Twenty-four connected prefabricated building modules are located under a steel arch measuring 13 by 80 meters. By 1981 the annual snowfall of about 1.7 meters, along with drifting, covered the 7-meter-high arch of the new station, and by 1987 snow accumulation and pressure had brought the station near an end of its useful life. Temperature extremes recorded at Siple were -52oC and 7oC. Annual mean was -24oC; monthly averages ranged from about -35oC in August to -12oC in January. Winds averaged 6.5 meters per second; a wind of 33 meters per second was recorded in October 1980. The station elevation is 1,000 meters; ice thickness is slightly less than that. Upper atmosphere physics was pursued at Siple. The station featured a crossed horizontal antenna 42 kilometers long, a radio receiver, and a transmitter for studies in the very-low-frequency range. Siple was placed where it is for study of signals transmitted along magnetic lines of force that extend from Siple as far as four earth radii into space, returning to earth at Siple's geomagnetic conjugate point in the northern hemisphere¾the thunderstorm-rich region of southeastern Quebec. During large projects in summer, Siple's population reached 65. Wintering complement was normally seven, but as small as four. Siple Station was named for Paul Siple, a polar expert who headed the first wintering science party at the South Pole in 1957 and first went to Antarctica as a Boy Scout with Richard E. Byrd in 1928. F. Eights Station (75o10'S 77o10'W) Eights was 200 kilometers east-northeast of Siple Station. It operated from January 1963 to January 1965, mainly in support of upper atmosphere physics. Station population during winter was 10-11. The station was named for James Eights, who in 1830 was the earliest American scientist in the Antarctic. G. Little America There were five Little Americas, all on the Ross Ice Shelf adjacent to the Bay of Whales or Kainan Bay. Numbers I and II supported Richard E. Byrd's expeditions in 1928- 1930 and 1933-1935. III was operated in 1939-1941 as part of the United States Antarctic Service and was also called West Base. IV was used by Operation Highjump, 1946-1947. V was an International Geophysical Year station, operating from 1955 to 1959. The stations have gone to sea as a result of calving of the Ross Ice Shelf. In 1987 a large iceberg (designated B-9) calved from the Bay of Whales area, eliminating it, at least for several years, as a feature of the Ross Ice Shelf. H. East Base (68o11'S 67o00'W) East Base is the oldest existing U.S. station in Antarctica. It is on Stonington Island near Marguerite Bay, on the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula. The United States Antarctic Service established East Base in March 1940, and 26 men wintered. There was a main building, 7 by 18 meters, and several smaller buildings along with a biplane, a tractor and a tank, and sledge dogs. The expeditioners left in March 1941. The (U.S.) Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition occupied the base during the winter of 1948. The base has not been used since then. Americans visited East Base in February 1975 and found three of the original buildings still standing. In 1989, at the request of the United States, the Antarctic Treaty nations declared buildings, artifacts, and their immediate environs at East Base an historic monument. U.S.-led expeditions in March 1991 and March 1992 cleaned up the station, documented its numerous artifacts, and established a small museum in one of the original buildings. V. TRANSPORTATION; RESEARCH PLATFORMS A. LC-130 Hercules This four-engine turboprop transport airplane is the backbone of U.S. transportation within Antarctica, and it also provides much of the air service between McMurdo Station and New Zealand. The LC-130 is the polar version of the familiar C-130 cargo plane; its major unique feature is the ski-equipped landing gear, which enables operation on snow or ice surfaces throughout Antarctica. The plane also has wheels for landings on prepared hard surfaces. It was introduced to the antarctic program in 1960; the National Science Foundation's fleet numbers seven, operated by the U.S. Navy. Four additional LC-130s, owned and operated by the Air National Guard, also are used in the U.S. Antarctic Program. These two groups are the only LC-130s in the world. The plane has a cargo area of 12 by 3 by 3 meters. It can, as an example, carry 12,200 kilograms of people and/or cargo from McMurdo to South Pole (728 nautical miles), then return to McMurdo without refueling. Or, it can deliver 10,400 kilograms from McMurdo to Siple (1,280 nautical miles), fly back empty to Byrd (484 miles) for fuel, then return to McMurdo. It cruises at 275 knots. Wingspan is 40 meters; length overall, 30 meters. B. Twin Otter When required, deHavilland Twin Otter turboprop airplanes are chartered for operations in Antarctica. Skis are fitted, and the planes can land on open snow and ice. The payload and range of a Twin Otter are less than those of the LC-130, but greater than those of the UH-1N helicopter. C. Helicopters Six UH-1N twin-turbine helicopters are operated out of McMurdo Station during the austral summer. With an operating weight of 3,200 kilograms, the UH-1N can carry a payload of 730 kilograms or up to five passengers over an operating radius of 185 kilometers. Using an external cargo sling, it can carry 1,400 kilograms. Cruising air speed is 100 knots. Other types of helicopters are chartered in some summers, sometimes in conjunction with the activities of other Antarctic Treaty nations. D. C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy The Air Mobility Command, U.S. Air Force, charters to the U.S. Antarctic Program a number of C-141 and C-5 round- trips between Christchurch, New Zealand, and McMurdo Station each austral summer from late September to early November. These large, four-engine jets move the bulk of the program's passengers and priority cargo during this period. In mid-June a C-141, supported by a KC-10 tanker providing midair refueling, airdrops fresh food and high priority cargo to McMurdo and South Pole during the long winter isolation. The C-141 can transport some 25,000 kilograms from Christchurch to McMurdo; the C-5, three times that amount. The C-5 is America's largest airplane. E. R/V Polar Duke Polar Duke, built in 1983, is a 67-meter ice strengthened research ship under charter to the Foundation since January 1985. It operates in the Antarctic Peninsula area and near southern South America throughout the year. The ship has a crew of 14 and can accommodate 23 scientific personnel. Polar Duke cruises at 12 knots, has an endurance of 90 days, and is well equipped with laboratories, winches, a piston corer, single channel seismic gear, and other equipment for biology, geology, and geophysics. F. Nathaniel B. Palmer Edison Chouest Offshore Inc., Galliano, Louisiana, in 1992 built and delivered a 94-meter research vessel with icebreaking capability for use by the U.S. Antarctic Program for 10 years or more. The ship is a first-rate platform for global change studies, including biological, oceanographic, geological, and geophysical components. It can operate safely year-round in antarctic waters that often are stormy or covered with sea ice. It accommodates 37 scientists, has a crew of 22, and is capable of 75-day missions. The ship is named the Nathaniel B. Palmer to commemorate the American credited with first seeing Antarctica. Nathaniel Brown Palmer, then 21 years old, commanded the 14-meter sloop Hero, which on 16 and 17 November 1820 entered Orleans Strait and came very close to the Antarctic Peninsula at about 63o45'S. Later in his life, Palmer also won wealth and fame as a pioneer clipper ship master and designer. G. U.S. academic research ships As required and available, research ships of the U.S. academic fleet have worked in ice-free antarctic waters. These visitors have included Melville, Knorr, and Alpha Helix. Research projects generally are in the disciplines of physical oceanography, marine biology, and marine geology and geophysics. In addition, the deep sea drilling ships Glomar Challenger and Joides Resolution have taken research cores from antarctic waters. H. Icebreakers A Polar-class, America's most powerful icebreaker, operates annually in the Antarctic. Either the Polar Star or the Polar Sea deploys to Antarctica each year to break a channel through McMurdo Sound and perform other logistics tasks. Glacier, an icebreaker built in 1955, served in Antarctica almost every year until it was decommissioned in 1987. The older Wind-class icebreakers served in Antarctica until the 1979-1980 season. A Polar-class icebreaker is 122 meters long and displaces 13,400 metric tons. Its diesel engines provide 13,400 kilowatts for normal operations. When required for icebreaking, gas turbines can be operated to increase the power to nearly 45,000 kilowatts. In open water the ship cruises at 13 knots; maximum speed is 17 knots. The ship carries two helicopters. Crew size is 154; the ship can accommodate 20 scientists. I. USNS tanker Each year this ice-strengthened tanker or one of its sister ships delivers approximately 20,000,000 liters of JP- A fuel (for furnaces and for diesel and aircraft engines) and gasoline to McMurdo Station. It is operated under contract to the Military Sealift Command. J. USNS Green Wave Annual visits by this or a similar ice-strengthened container ship deliver most of the cargo used at McMurdo and inland stations, and it takes U.S. Antarctic Program waste to the USA for recycling or proper disposal. It is operated under contract to the Military Sealift Command. K. Inflatable boats These 3- to 5-meter inflatable rubber open boats (e.g., Zodiacs) are used at Palmer Station and with Polar Duke to support research operations. They are powered by outboard motors. L. Ground transportation A variety of vehicles is used for transport and hauling. These include four-wheel-drive pickup trucks with oversize tires, all-wheel-drive dump trucks and flatbeds, tracked vehicles, articulated vehicles with wide, low- pressure tires, and motor toboggans (snowmobiles). The familiar Caterpillar tractor is found in Antarctica¾sometimes with low ground pressure wide tracks for improved operation on snow. Snowblowers and graders are used to clear snow from roads. VI. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES Scientific investigation of Antarctica began on the present scale with the 1957-1958 International Geophysical Year. Since then, continuous research by many nations has come close to completing a reconnaissance of the continent and its surrounding oceans. The goal is to foster research on worldwide and regional problems of scientific and social importance and to expand fundamental knowledge of the region. Because of the expense of antarctic operations, research is performed in Antarctica only if it can be performed only there or if it can be performed best there. Investigators from universities and, to a lesser extent, from federal agencies and other organizations perform the research projects. For most Americans who do research in Antarctica the National Science Foundation, on completion of exacting review and selection procedures that include evaluation by outside scientists, provides both financial and operational support. Investigators may perform research and analysis individually, in small teams, or in large interdisciplinary groups. Preparation and presentation of the results of research in Antarctica are the responsibility of the investigators. These resultes appear mainly in scientific journals. What follows is a brief description of research objectives in the scientific disciplines most active in Antarctica: A. Aeronomy and astrophysics The polar regions have been called Earth's window to outer space. This term originally applied to study of aurora and other phenomena related to interaction of solar plasmas and fields. In this context the polar upper atmosphere is a screen on which the results of such interactions can be viewed and through which other evidence of space physics processes can pass. Today, this concept of Earth's polar atmosphere as a window includes research in other fields as well. With discovery of polar stratospheric ozone depletions, a window previously thought ``closed'' (the ultraviolet window) is known to ``open'' in certain seasons. In astronomy and astrophysics, favorable atmospheric conditions and the unique location of the South Pole enable scientists to use this window to probe the structure of the Sun and the universe with unprecedented precision. The aeronomy and astrophysics program supports studies of three regions: Øthe stratosphere and the mesosphere. Research focuses on stratospheric chemistry and aerosols, particularly in the context of the ozone hole. The polar stratosphere is expected to be a field of continued interest and growth. Øthe thermosphere, the ionosphere, and the magnetosphere. These regions derive many of their characteristics from the interplay of ionized plasmas and energetic charged particles with geomagnetic and geoelectric fields. The upper atmosphere, particularly the ionospheric portion of it, is the ultimate sink of solar wind energy that is transported into the magnetosphere. Energy dissipates in the ionosphere because of particle precipitation, which is the result in part of resonant wave-particle interactions, and because of the Joule heating that is a result of currents driven by electric fields. Øastronomy and astrophysical studies of the regions of the universe outside the magnetosphere, including solar astronomy and cosmic ray physics. Astrophysical studies are primarily conducted at the South Pole station, and long- duration balloon projects are launched from McMurdo. Major goals are to sponsor research that requires or would benefit from the unique conditions of the Antarctic, to contribute to understanding of the role of the Antarctic in global environmental change, to participate in interdisciplinary studies of geosphere-biosphere interactions in the middle and upper atmosphere, and to improve understanding of the coupling of the Earth's polar atmosphere with the magnetosphere and of the ways in which both are affected by solar activity. B. Biology and medical research The goal of antarctic biology and medical research is to improve understanding of life phenomena and processes. The program supports projects directed at all levels of organization from molecular, cellular, and organismal to communities, ecosystems, and global processes. Investigators should apply recent theory and technology to understanding how organisms, including humans, adapt and live in high latitude environments and how ecosystems may respond to global change. Support is focused on these areas: ØMarine ecosystem dynamics. Understanding the natural variability of marine ecosystems is the goal. An important direction is toward correlating the structure and function of the marginal ice-zone ecosystem with oceanic and atmospheric processes. Of particular interest is the influence of nutrient limitations on primary production and the role of marine phytoplankton in carbon dioxide cycling. Proposals to develop data collection technologies such as satellite remote sensing are encouraged. ØTerrestrial and limnetic ecosystems. Organisms in ice-free areas and in perennially ice-covered lakes show remarkable adaptations. The presence of relatively few species eases the study of ecosystem dynamics and the interpretation of experiments. Research is needed on adaptive mechanisms and evolutionary processes. Studies that include molecular biological approaches are encouraged. ØPopulation biology and physiological ecology. Research is supported in population dynamics, especially metabolic, physiological, and behavioral adaptations of krill and other zooplankton and fish species. Marine mammals and birds have been the object of much research and merit further attention in some areas. Mechanisms necessary for maintenance of cell function in fishes and their feeding behavior are important topics. Long-term observations are needed to improve understanding of manmade or natural changes. ØAdaptation. The extremes of light, temperature, and moisture have resulted in unusual adaptations. Research topics include low temperature photosynthesis and respiration, enzymatic adaptations, adaptive strategies such as development of antifreeze compounds and modifications to circulation systems, and the response of organisms to increased UV-B from the ozone hole. Biotechnology offers unique approaches to addressing questions involving adaptation, and such applications are of special interest. ØHuman behavior and medical research. Antarctica's extreme climate can induce social, psychological, and physiological stresses, particularly during the winter isolation, which can exceed 8 months. Research has applications to human health and performance both in the Antarctic and in other isolated environments such as spacecraft. Studies can focus on topics such as epidemiology, thermal regulation, immune system function, individual behavior, and group dynamics. C. Earth sciences Antarctica represents about 9 percent of Earth's continental crust and has been in a near-polar position for more than 100 million years. It is covered by a continental ice sheet with an average thickness of 3 km. There is unequivocal evidence that for a long period after the continent arrived at its high-latitude position, extensive continental ice sheets did not exist there. The ice sheets, through their interaction with and effect on oceanic and atmospheric circulation, play a key role in modulating global climate. Some important program goals include: Ødetermining the tectonic evolution of Antarctica and its relationship to the evolution of the continents from Precambrian time to the present Ødetermining Antarctica's crustal structure Ødetermining the effect of the dispersal of antarctic continental fragments on the paleocirculation of the world oceans, on the evolution of life, and on global paleoclimates and present climate Øreconstructing a more detailed history of the ice sheets, identifying geological controls to ice sheet behavior, and defining geological responses to the ice sheets on regional and global scales Ødetermining the evolution of sedimentary basins within the continent and along continental margins All of these problems involve the need for an improved understanding of where, when, and how Antarctica and its surrounding ocean basins were accommodated in the interplate movements inferred from studies of global plate kinematics. In short, the program encourages investigation of the relationships between the geological evolution of the antarctic plate and paleocirculation, paleoclimate, and the evolution of high-latitude biota. In geophysics, the continent and its environs have a central role in the geodynamic processes that have shaped the present global environment. The tectonic role of the antarctic continent in the breakup of Gondwanaland, the close interaction of the antarctic crust and ice sheet with their attendant effects on the planet's fluid systems, and Antarctica's present-day seismically quiescent role defines the important thrusts of geophysical research in the high southern latitudes. Modern geophysical and logistical technology might focus on three broad ``transect zones,'' across the Weddell and Ross embayments and in the area of the Amery Ice Shelf, where prospects for broad-scale understanding of the region are highest. D. Ocean and climate systems Antarctic oceanic and tropospheric studies focus on the structure and processes of the ocean-atmosphere environment and their relationships with the global ocean, the atmosphere, and the marine biosphere. As part of the global heat engine, the Antarctic has a major role in the world's transfer of energy. Its ocean/atmosphere system is known to be both an indicator and a component of climate change. Research sponsored by the ocean and climate systems program is intended to improve understanding of the oceanic environment at high latitudes, including global exchange of heat, salt, water, and trace elements, sea-ice dynamics, and tropospheric chemistry and dynamics. Major program elements include¾ ØPhysical oceanography, concerned with understanding the dynamics and kinematics of the polar oceans, the effects of interface driving forces such as wind, solar radiation, and heat exchange, water mass production and modification processes, ocean dynamics at the pack ice edge, and the effect of polynyas on ventilation. ØChemical oceanography, concerned with chemical composition of sea water and its global speciation, reactions among chemical elements and compounds in the ocean, fluxes of material within ocean basins and at their boundaries, and the use of chemical tracers to study time and space scales of oceanic processes. ØSea ice dynamics, including study of the material characteristics of sea ice down to the individual crystal level and the large-scale patterns of freezing, deformation, and melting. These processes have implications for both atmospheric and oceanic ``climates.'' Advances in instrumentation, including remote sensing or telemetering of ice type, thickness, motion, and growth, should enable large scale dynamics of sea ice to be monitored over long periods. ØMeteorology, concerned with atmospheric circulation systems and dynamics. Research areas include the energy budget; atmospheric chemistry; transport of atmospheric contaminants to the Antarctic; and the role of large and mesoscale systems in global exchange of heat, momentum, and trace constituents. E. Glaciology Snow and ice are pervasive elements of high latitude environmental systems and have an active role in the global environment. The glaciology program is concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of all naturally occurring forms of snow and ice, including floating ice, seasonal snow, glaciers, and continental and marine ice sheets. Program emphases include paleoenvironments from ice cores, ice dynamics, numerical modeling, glacial geology, and remote sensing of ice sheets. Some specific objectives are: ØCorrelation of climatic fluctuations evident in antarctic ice cores with data from arctic and lower-latitude ice cores, and integration of the ice record with the terrestrial and marine record. ØDocumentation of the geographic extent of climatic events noted in paleoclimatic records; and the extension of the ice core time series to provide information on astronomical forcing of climate. ØEstablishment of more precise dating methodologies for deep ice cores. ØDetermination of the Cenozoic history of antarctic ice sheets and their interaction with global climate and uplift of the Transantarctic Mountains; response of the antarctic ice sheets to the Pliocene warming. ØInvestigation of the physics of fast glacier flow with emphasis on processes at glacier beds. ØInvestigation of ice-shelf stability. ØIdentification and quantification of the feedback between ice dynamics and climate change. A Polar Ice Coring Office is supported by the National Science Foundation to service the technological requirements of glaciologists. It focuses on ice drill development for NSF-supported remote field projects. A National Ice Core Laboratory processes, catalogs, distributes, and archives ice core samples. The University of Colorado and the Geological Survey operate the facility in Denver under contract to NSF. F. Environmental research This program supports research that can help to reduce further the environmental impact of NSF's activities in Antarctica. Areas of inquiry include policy research, effects of past practices, materials and waste management, impacts, resilience of ecosystems, and promising technologies. G. Instrumentation Supporting complex, state-of-the-art, multidisciplinary research in the Earth's most remote and hostile region is a challenge met increasingly by instrumentation. Off-the- shelf instruments, highly capable computers, and support for the development of new instruments are requested frequently in research proposals. Some existing instruments are well-suited for polar regions; they can gather data year-round at low operational cost. Use of these instruments can reduce the number of people required to make measurements and even increase the reliability of the collected data. Unattended instruments for collection and analysis of data are essential in Antarctica, where the extreme environment, great distances, and logistics constraints limit the spatial and temporal extent of coverage. VII. AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES The U.S. Antarctic Program is the nation's program for research and presence in Antarctica. It is funded and managed by the federal government, with agency responsibilities as follows. A. Antarctic Working Group This unit of the Interagency Policy Coordinating Committee is the policy guidance body for all U.S. activities under the Antarctic Treaty. Its members represent the Department of State (chair), the National Science Foundation, the Department of Defense, and other agencies as appropriate. B. National Science Foundation The NSF has overall funding and management responsibility for the U.S. activities in Antarctica. This responsibility involves several functions: ØAnnual preparation of plans and budget for consideration within the Executive Branch and for review and appropriation by the Congress. ØDevelopment of scientific goals for Antarctica, obtaining advice as needed from the scientific community and communicating these goals to the scientific community. ØReceipt of proposals for research projects from U.S. universities, other research institutions, and federal agencies; evaluation of these proposals for relevance to program goals, scientific merit, and logistics feasibility; and granting of funds (as available) to these institutions for performance of the projects in Antarctica and completion of analysis upon return. ØDetailed planning of logistics, and transmittal of logistics requirements and necessary funds to the U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica and to the United States Coast Guard (functions are described below). ØFacilities management, design, planning, engineering, construction, and maintenance. ØDevelopment and management of a contract with a commercial firm (currently Antarctic Support Associates) for operation of South Pole, Siple, and Palmer Stations, the research vessels Polar Duke and Nathaniel B. Palmer, construction, specialized functions at McMurdo Station, and other services. ØDevelopment and implementation of a comprehensive safety, environment, and health program for U.S. activities in Antarctica. ØArrangement of cooperative scientific and logistics programs with other Antarctic Treaty nations. ØDesignation of a Senior U.S. Representative in Antarctica and on-site management of the field programs in Antarctica. ØServing as a clearinghouse and source of information regarding antarctic records, files, documents, and maps maintained within agencies and nongovernmental organizations. C. Department of Defense The Defense Department assists in planning and carries out logistics requested and reimbursed by the Foundation, and it assures the continuing availability of essential logistics components. This function is performed principally by the U.S. Naval Support Force Antarctica and the Navy's Antarctic Development Squadron 6 (VXE-6). Units of the Air Force (Air Mobility Command), Air National Guard, and Army also participate in this work. Functions include: ØDesignated activities at McMurdo Station. ØOperation of a squadron of seven LC-130 Hercules airplanes and six UH-1N Huey helicopters in support of science projects and resupply of inland stations ØArrangement of annual ship resupply of McMurdo by Military Sealift Command contract ships ØOperational communications ØMilitary Airlift Command flights between Antarctica and adjacent gateway cities ØSafety and medical care for U.S. personnel in Antarctica as assigned ØOperation of portions of a staging facility in Christchurch, New Zealand D. Department of Transportation The United States Coast Guard, a part of the Department of Transportation, provides icebreaker services, reimbursed by the Foundation. These services include: ØChannel breaking in McMurdo Sound in advance of the annual ship resupply of McMurdo Station ØEscort of supply ships into and out of McMurdo Station ØOther assistance as required, including onboard research support Each icebreaker has an on-board aviation detachment consisting of two helicopters used for ice reconnaissance, personnel transportation, some cargo operations, and other support. E. Department of State In addition to chairing the Antarctic Working Group, the State Department is responsible for the formulation of foreign policy and the provision of foreign policy direction relating to the development and implementation of an integrated U.S. program for Antarctica; for the conduct of foreign relations regarding Antarctica; and for legal matters relating to the interpretation and implementation of the Antarctic Treaty. F. Budget As of mid-1994, the President had asked the Congress for antarctic funding in the National Science Foundation budget in fiscal 1995 as follows: Awards to institutions for research $ 31,030,000 Operations and science support 104,420,000 Logistical support 62,600,000 Total, U.S. Antarctic Program $198,050,000 VIII. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION A. Antarctic Treaty The Antarctic Treaty, signed at Washington, D.C., in 1959 and entered into force in 1961, establishes a legal framework for the area south of 60oS, which includes all of Antarctica. There are two types of Antarctic Treaty parties. Consultative nations are empowered to meet periodically and to influence operation of the treaty. Acceding nations agree to abide by the treaty, but, not being among the original signatories and not having substantial programs in Antarctica, do not participate in the consultative process. Appendix 1 contains the Antarctic Treaty and a list of participating nations. The treaty provides that Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only; it prohibits military operations except in support of peaceful activities. It provides that freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue and that nations shall exchange program plans, personnel, observations, and results. The treaty does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims, and it prohibits assertion of new claims. It prohibits nuclear explosions and disposal of radioactive waste. It guarantees access by any treaty nation to inspect others' stations and equipment. The consultative meetings provided for by the treaty have contributed recommendations, most of which have been formally adopted by the treaty nations, that provide rules for operating on the continent. One of the most significant is the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora, ratified by the United States as Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978. Other significant advances have included the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals and the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources. A 1991 Antarctic Treaty meeting adopted a protocol for improved environmental protection that also prohibits mining. B. Managers of National Antarctic Programs The treaty itself provides for policy formulation on a range of issues regarding Antarctica. The government offices in the Antarctic Treaty nations that operate field programs in Antarctica have established a Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP) to facilitate working-level decision making and information exchange. Issues discussed at this level include, for example, decisions regarding the exchange of personnel and cooperation in research and logistics. For the United States, the director of the Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, is the COMNAP representative. C. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research SCAR is a committee of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), a nongovernmental organization. As stated in its constitution, SCAR is ``charged with furthering the coordination of scientific activity in Antarctica, with a view to framing a scientific program of circumpolar scope and significance.'' Membership consists of a representative from each country engaged in antarctic research, representatives of other ICSU organizations as appropriate, and the World Meteorological Organization. Other international organizations may designate observers to attend meetings of SCAR. For the United States, the national committee adhering to SCAR is the Polar Research Board of the National Academy of Sciences. SCAR meets every 2 years in a SCAR country to consider various scientific and logistics objectives and accomplishments. It also sponsors or associates with major symposia on antarctic subjects. Sometimes SCAR establishes working groups to develop information or reports in response to Antarctic Treaty recommendations. D. Bilateral and multilateral cooperation Within the context of the Antarctic Treaty, extensive international cooperation takes place in Antarctica to more effectively accomplish both science projects and logistics. Some examples are exchanges of personnel among stations, cooperative planning and execution of large-scale science projects such as deep rock core drilling and glaciological exploration, and the exchange or shared use of logistics assets such as ships and aircraft. The United States has pursued cooperative projects with every Antarctic Treaty consultative nation. IX. U.S. POLICY FOR ANTARCTICA Our Nation's policy for Antarctica¾the ``marching orders'' for U.S. plans and activities¾has developed steadily and consistently over the years. It is based on four principles: we recognize no foreign territorial claims, we reserve the right to participate in any future uses of the region, Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only, and there shall be free access for scientific investigation and other peaceful pursuits. The nonrecognition of territorial claims dates to 1924, when the Secretary of State (Charles Evans Hughes) wrote that discovery of lands unknown to civilization ``does not support a valid claim of sovereignty unless the discovery is followed by an actual settlement of the discovered country.'' In 1934 the Assistant Secretary of State added: ``I reserve all rights which the United States or its citizens may have with respect to this matter.'' President Franklin D. Roosevelt reaffirmed the U.S. stance in 1939: ``The United States has never recognized any claims of sovereignty over territory in the antarctic regions asserted by any foreign state.'' And in 1947 Dean Acheson, the Under Secretary of State, wrote that the United States ``has not recognized any claims of any other nations in the area and has reserved all rights which it may have in the area.'' As early as 1948, drawing on its leadership in antarctic and world affairs, the United States had proposed an international trusteeship. The seven claimant nations and the USA (and other nations, if they wished) would have agreed ``not to seek a division of the territory in the area, but to join with the others.'' The eight nations would make joint explorations and would have free access over the area. For a decade the idea did not catch. Then the International Geophysical Year renewed ties, and in May 1958 President Dwight D. Eisenhower invited the 11 other antarctic IGY nations to come to Washington to draft an Antarctic Treaty. He wrote: ``The United States is dedicated to the principle that the vast uninhabited wastes of Antarctica shall be used only for peaceful purposes. . . . We propose that Antarctica shall be open to all nations to conduct scientific and other peaceful activities there.'' Referring to the IGY, the President wrote: ``Our proposal is directed at insuring that this same kind of cooperation for the benefit of all mankind shall be perpetuated.'' The Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, referred to the extensive activities of United States expeditions to the Antarctic and set forth the basic position and proposal of the United States in these words: ``In view of the activities of the United States and its nationals referred to above, my Government reserves all of the rights of the United States with respect to the antarctic region, including the right to assert a territorial claim or claims. ``It is the opinion of my Government, however, that the interests of mankind would best be served, in consonance with the high ideals of the Charter of the United Nations, if the countries which have a direct interest in Antarctica were to join together in the conclusion of a treaty which would have the following peaceful purposes: ``A. Freedom of scientific investigation throughout Antarctica by citizens, organizations, and governments of all countries, . . . ``B. International agreement to ensure that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only. ``C. Any other peaceful purposes not inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations. ``It is believed that such a treaty can be concluded without requiring any participating nation to renounce whatever basic historic rights it may have in Antarctica, or whatever claims of sovereignty it may have asserted. It could be specifically provided that such basic rights and such claims would remain unaffected while the treaty is in force, and that no new rights would be acquired and no new claims made by any country during the duration of the treaty.'' The nations met, the Antarctic Treaty was written, and all the proposed provisions were in it. The treaty entered into force in 1961. The Antarctic Treaty became the keystone of U.S. antarctic policy. In October 1970 President Richard M. Nixon stated U.S. policy for Antarctica to be: ``To maintain the Antarctic Treaty and ensure that this continent will continue to be used only for peaceful purposes and shall not become an area or object of international discord. ``To foster cooperative scientific research for the solution of worldwide and regional problems, including environmental monitoring and prediction and assessment of resources. ``To protect the antarctic environment and develop appropriate measures to ensure the equitable and wise use of living and nonliving resources.'' The President added: ``Science has provided a successful basis for international accord, and the Antarctic is the only continent where science serves as the principal expression of national policy and interest.'' In 1970 and again in 1976 National Security Decision Memoranda 71 and 318 reaffirmed the ``importance of maintaining an active and influential United States presence in the Antarctic'' that is ``responsive to United States scientific, economic, and political objectives.'' In February 1982 President Ronald Reagan reaffirmed the prior policy (appendix) and noted that the presence in Antarctica shall include ``the conduct of scientific activities in major disciplines'' and ``year-round occupation of the South Pole and two coastal stations.'' X. PAST U.S. ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS A. Before International Geophysical Year United States expeditions to Antarctica have occurred almost since the beginning of the nation. Among the notable ones, in 1820 Nathaniel B. Palmer, a Connecticut sealer, saw the Antarctic Peninsula from his 14-meter sloop Hero. John Davis made the first known landing on Antarctica, at Hughes Bay, in 1821. James Eights, a scientist, provided remarkably advanced natural history reports after accompanying sealers to the South Shetlands in 1829-1831. Charles Wilkes headed a Navy expedition that in 1839-1840 explored and mapped 2,400 kilometers of the coast of Wilkes Land and established that Antarctica is a continent. Carl B. Eielson piloted the first airplane flown in Antarctica, in 1928. Richard E. Byrd introduced large-scale mechanization of antarctic exploration in two expeditions, in 1928-1930 and 1933-1935, that included extensive exploration by airplane and the first flight over the South Pole. Lincoln Ellsworth flew across Antarctica in 1935 and discovered the American Highland in 1938-1939. The Government established two antarctic stations in 1939-1941 that were intended to begin a continuing antarctic service (World War II ended this plan). In 1946-1947 the Navy's Operation Highjump, the largest expedition ever made to Antarctica, used 13 ships, several helicopters and airplanes, and 4,700 men; it performed extensive aerial photography for mapping. A smaller Navy expedition, Operation Windmill, followed in 1947-1948. Finn Ronne's expedition in 1948 established a wintering station and explored and mapped at the base of the Antarctic Peninsula. B. International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958 The International Geophysical Year, 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958, was a great cooperative endeavor by the world's scientists to improve their understanding of the earth and its environment. Much of the field activity took place in Antarctica, where 12 nations established some 60 research stations. The United States established six research stations: Little America, Hallett, South Pole, and Byrd (described in section III), plus Wilkes (on the coast of Wilkes Land, East Antarctica) and Ellsworth (on the Filchner Ice Shelf). Naval Air Facility, McMurdo Sound (now McMurdo Station), was set up as a logistics base from which to supply South Pole. Studies were directed toward geophysics and upper atmosphere physics and included simultaneous observations at all parts of the globe. In addition, long scientific traverses were made to collect data in glaciology, seismology, gravimetry, and meteorology. Geological and biological samples were collected, although these disciplines were not formally part of the IGY. C. United States Antarctic Program The results of research performed during the IGY were so interesting scientifically that the United States and the other IGY nations decided to continue their antarctic work. The National Science Foundation (NSF) was given responsibility for the U.S. research effort and in 1959 established the U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP). Mapping, biology, and ocean sciences were added to the already active disciplines of geology and geophysics, glaciology, meteorology, and upper atmosphere physics. An NSF contractor (currently Antarctic Support Associates, Englewood, Colorado) and the Naval Support Force Antarctica, identified by the unit name Operation Deep Freeze, support the scientific effort. The Air Force, the Coast Guard, and the Army also provide logistics. After 1971, when the National Science Foundation was assigned overall responsibility for U.S. activities in Antarctica, the term U.S. Antarctic Program came into use to designate both the United States Antarctic Research Program and all operational activities, including Operation Deep Freeze, that support the research program and other features of the U.S. presence in Antarctica. Since the beginning of USARP, research has been balanced among the scientific disciplines so that an understanding of Antarctica's natural features and processes can be developed along a broad front. Results of U.S. antarctic research performed since the IGY have had a great part in developing an understanding of Antarctica, its role in global processes, its distinctive needs for environmental preservation, and its resource potential and have placed the United States in a position of scientific and diplomatic leadership in Antarctica. XI. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION Protection of the environment has high priority for nations that operate in the Antarctic. The Antarctic Treaty system, with its Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Fauna and Flora (1964) and its Protocol on Environmental Protection (1991), prescribes comprehensive protective measures. The U.S. Government is pledged to uphold these principles. The National Science Foundation operates the U.S. Antarctic Program in accordance with U.S. and international requirements regarding protection of the environment. Environmental protection and waste management procedures have been improved significantly in recent years. Cleanups have largely removed the waste that had accumulated during earlier decades. Following are summaries of the treaties and laws that apply to Antarctica and of recent actions taken in the U.S. Antarctic Program. A. Treaties and laws that protect the environment ØThe Antarctic Treaty (1959) prohibits military fortifications, nuclear explosions, disposal of radioactive waste, and testing of weapons. The United States is a signatory. ØThe Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (the ``Madrid protocol,'' 1991) prohibits any activity, other than scientific research, relating to mineral resources. It tightens standards for assessing impacts, conserving fauna and flora, managing waste, and preventing marine pollution. The U.S. Antarctic Program is complying voluntarily until U.S. legislation to implement the protocol is in place. Ø The Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978 (Public Law 95-541), and the regulations issued under it, govern the taking of fauna and flora; entry into protected areas; introduction of nonnative species; material management and waste disposal; and use of designated pollutants. A permit system enables investigators to apply to collect specimens and enter protected areas for compelling scientific purposes. The system provides for public comment on each application. Ø The Antarctic Marine Living Resources Convention Act of 1984 (Public Law 98-623) makes it unlawful to harvest marine species in a way that would damage ecological relationships among harvested, dependent, and related populations. ØThe Antarctic Protection Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-594) bans mineral resource activities by U.S. citizens. ØA 1993 decision by the U.S. Appeals Court for the District of Columbia establishes that the National Environmental Policy Act (Public Law 91-190 and amendments¾NEPA) applies to U.S. Government activities in Antarctica. Before, Executive Order 12114 (Environmental Effects Abroad of Major Federal Actions, 1979) guided the U.S. Antarctic Program. B. Conservation and environmental procedures ØThe National Science Foundation requires every scientist proposing research in Antarctica to analyze the environmental impact of the proposed project. NSF carefully reviews the proposal and does not give approval unless the project (sometimes modified for this purpose) complies with antarctic environmental standards. ØActivities planned in the U.S. Antarctic Program¾science support, construction, operations, logistics, and facilities maintenance¾are (a) subjected to environmental analysis specific to the proposed action or (b) governed by a program- wide environmental impact statement issued in 1980 and revised in 1991. More than 120 specific environmental documents have been issued. The documents are public (see last page). ØThe National Science Foundation administers the Antarctic Conservation Act permit system, which enables qualified scientists to obtain access to fauna and flora and specially protected areas on a controlled basis. Public comment is solicited (in the Federal Register) about each application, and permit requests and final reports are public information. ØThe Foundation produces and disseminates documents and videos to educate U.S. citizens about their environmental protection responsibilities in Antarctica and the penalties for noncompliance. Audiences include U.S. Antarctic Program participants and nongovernmental entities such as tourists, tour operators, and adventurers. ØA Foundation-managed program places trained observers on selected tour ships to monitor compliance by U.S. citizens with environmental standards of the Antarctic Conservation Act. ØAll program participants sort and recycle waste at their work sites and their living areas. ØWaste management is now a ``cradle-to-grave'' function that has been integrated into U.S. antarctic operations from procurement to disposal. ØIn 1993 the Foundation's Office of Polar Programs established and filled two new positions¾NEPA Compliance Manager and Associate Compliance Manager¾to assure adherence with NEPA in Antarctica. A third position¾Antarctic Conservation Act Enforcement Officer¾also was established and filled. These positions add to four existing managers whose primary roles are in safety, environment, and health aspects of the U.S. Antarctic Program. ØA U.S. Government interagency group is drafting legislation to implement U.S. adherence to the new Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty. C. Recent initiatives ØThe 1993-1994 season is the last year of a 5-year antarctic safety, environment, and health initiative approved by the President and the Congress. The initiative includes $36- million for environmental protection in the U.S. Antarctic Program. Some results follow. ØFuel handling has been improved by replacing rubber bladder tanks with double-wall steel tanks at McMurdo's skiway and ice runway ; replacing old, short hoses with fewer but longer hoses having ``dry-break'' connectors; developing fuel spill contingency plans; and installing spill cleanup equipment at U.S. stations. A program is under way to provide containment berms around McMurdo's single-wall fuel tanks. Tanks near Robert F. Scott's 1902 hut (an Antarctic Treaty historic site) are to be removed. McMurdo's entire fuel system (tanks, pipes, pumps) is being evaluated in detail in 1993-1994. ØMcMurdo's original dump (used until 1980) on the shore of Winter Quarters Bay was cleared of surface and near-surface debris and stabilized. ØMcMurdo's old trash-burning area (used from 1980 to 1991) at Fortress Rocks uphill from the station was remediated and stabilized. Packaged waste now is staged there for removal from Antarctica. ØAt Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, on the ice sheet in the antarctic interior, open-trench disposal of solid waste was terminated. The station now sends all its solid and hazardous waste to McMurdo for processing. In the 1992-1993 season 135 metric tons¾more than 20 cargo plane loads¾was removed. ØThe U.S. Antarctic Program no longer burns or incinerates food waste or any other waste in Antarctica. It is proposing to remove the waste from Antarctica for proper disposal. ØMore than 2,300 drums containing hazardous or unknown waste were identified, packed in salvage drums, and removed in 1991-1992 to the United States for proper disposal. Most of the waste consisted of contaminated fuel, solvents, and acids and bases that had accumulated over the years. ØMcMurdo Station is the waste management center for virtually all U.S. operations on the antarctic continent. The waste that is collected, labeled, and packaged there is removed to approved disposal sites outside Antarctica. ØThe antarctic program has moved significantly toward its goal of total waste removal from Antarctica. McMurdo's annual cargo ship in 1992 removed 2,500 metric tons of backlogged waste, old equipment, and recyclables¾this was the peak year. The 1993 load was 1,500 metric tons. ØWaste generated at dormitories and work sites is sorted at the source into 17 categories for reuse in Antarctica or for recycling or disposal in the United States. ØThe several dozen research camps around Antarctica that are supported each austral summer from McMurdo take their waste to McMurdo for appropriate handling. ØPalmer Station, on Anvers Island off the west coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, sends its solid and hazardous waste by ship either to destinations outside of Antarctica for proper disposal or to McMurdo for further handling and removal from Antarctica. ØElectrical transformers containing PCBs were removed from Antarctica and replaced with new transformers that do not contain PCBs. ØThe program has made major strides in inventory management to reduce the amount of hazardous and other material stored in Antarctica. ØChemical, laboratory, and hazardous wastes are prohibited from station sewage systems. The science laboratories and other sources capture such waste for removal from Antarctica. ØPalmer's kitchen, bathing, and toilet waste is macerated and diluted with brine from the seawater desalination plant before being discharged into the sea. ØMcMurdo's kitchen, bathing, and toilet waste is macerated, diluted with brine from the seawater desalination plant, and discharged into the sea through a submerged pipe to assure dilution. ØNSF is collecting data for an assessment of the McMurdo sewage system. Also, in response to its request, potential contractors have presented statements of how they might engineer a sewage treatment plant. ØWaste minimization and recycling technologies are being researched and pursued for McMurdo Station. ØThe two ships operated by the U.S. Antarctic Program¾the Nathaniel B. Palmer and the Polar Duke¾were built in 1992 and 1983 and meet both international high seas standards (Marpol) and Antarctic Treaty protocol stipulations regarding discharge of pollutants. D. Former stations ØThe original Palmer Station, built in 1965 across Arthur Harbor from the present station, has been dismantled and removed from Antarctica. The site has been cleaned. ØHallett Station, on the Victoria Land coast 600 kilometers north of McMurdo, was operated by the United States and New Zealand from 1956 to 1973. U.S. and N.Z. teams have removed most remains of the station except for two refuge huts and some stored fuel. Removal of the fuel is being planned. ØEast Base, on Stonington Island, 400 kilometers south of Palmer, was operated by U.S. expeditions in 1940-1941 and 1947-1948. Site of the oldest U.S. structures in Antarctica, it was declared historic under the Antarctic Treaty in 1989 and cleaned up, with due regard for its historic status, in 1991 and 1992. A small museum has been set up in one of the buildings. E. Studies ØHigh levels of dissolved oxygen (8 to 9 parts per million) were recorded from sea water samples drawn adjacent to McMurdo, indicating excellent water quality. Suspended solids in the water column were negligible. ØAir monitoring stations installed for NSF at McMurdo in the 1992-1993 austral summer season gave readings of carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, the various nitrogen oxides, and small particulates that are well below (much better than) U.S. national ambient air quality standards applicable in the United States. ØStudies performed by scientists from U.S. universities with funding from NSF have shown that the sediments under Winter Quarters Bay (McMurdo's harbor, a small triangular area 200 meters on a side) include hydrocarbons, other pollutants, and anthropogenic debris that were deposited during the years of the seaside dump. The sediments and waters just outside this small harbor and elsewhere show little or no effects from pollution or anthropogenic disturbance. ØAn Environmental Monitoring and Enforcement Laboratory has been established in McMurdo's Albert P. Crary Science and Engineering Center. ØNSF has set up a program to support research that will provide part of the scientific basis for antarctic environmental management. XII. PUBLICATIONS A. Maps With NSF support, the U.S. Geological Survey has prepared and published topographic and geologic maps of portions of Antarctica at scales of 1:50,000, 1:250,000, 1:500,000, and 1:1,000,000. Most of these maps, which are the most authoritative ones available, cost under $5 each. A 1991 satellite image wall map of the continent at 1:5,000,000 scale (``Antarctica,'' Map I-2284) is $5.25. The free Catalogue of Antarctica Maps can be requested by phone from the Survey's Denver office (1-800-USA-MAPS) at¾ USGS Branch of Distribution Box 25286, Building 810 Denver, Colorado 80225 An older one-sheet map of the continent at 1:5,000,000 scale, published by the American Geographical Society in 1970, is available from the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center, Washington, D.C. 20560. The map measures 107 by 142 centimeters and costs $6 folded or $7 rolled and shipped in a tube. A one-sheet map of the continent and surrounding oceans (scale 1:6,000,000), a part of the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans series, was published in 1980. It is available for $5 from the Hydrographic Chart Distribution Service, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1675 Russell Road, P.O. Box 8080, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1G 3H6 (613- 998-4931). B. Library of aerial photographs and maps An extremely large and complete library collection of antarctic aerial photographs and maps produced by both the United States and other nations is available for inspection at the SCAR (Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research) Map Library, U.S. Geological Survey, 515 National Center, Reston, Virginia 22092 (telephone 703-648-6010). C. Hydrographic charts A total of 37 hydrographic charts of antarctic coastal and deep sea waters at scales from 1:500,000 to 1:5,000 are available from the Defense Mapping Agency (DMA), Office of Distribution Services, Washington, D.C. 20315 (301-227- 2495). An index is available from DMA or the Office of Polar Programs. D. Aeronautical charts Aeronautical charts and publications regarding portions of Antarctica are available for purchase by the public from the Defense Mapping Agency, Combat Support Center, Attn: DDCP, Washington, D.C. 20315-0020 (301-227-2495 in Maryland or 1-800-826-0342 outside Maryland). To decide what to order, get Public Sale Catalog DMA Stock No. CATP6V03 (First Edition, December 1987). These are specialized products and not very useful to those who are not aviators. E. Place names A gazetteer of the 12,362 antarctic place names recognized by the United States (Gazetteer of the Antarctic; NSF 89-98; xii + 145p.) was published in 1990 and is available from the Polar Information Program (703-306-1031). This book also lists 2,546 unapproved variant names, which should not be used, and it contains a form on which to recommend new names. An updated gazetteer with descriptions of place names is expected to be published in early 1995. F. Bibliographies, 1951-present Two bibliography projects provide virtually complete coverage of the antarctic research literature. An ongoing Antarctic Bibliography prepared by the Library of Congress abstracts and indexes the world antarctic literature published between 1951 and the present. At the end of 1993, 54,270 titles had been cited in the subject categories of: general, biological sciences, cartography, expeditions, geological sciences, ice and snow, logistics equipment and supplies, medical sciences, meteorology, oceanography, atmospheric physics, terrestrial physics, and political geography. Author, subject, geographic, and grantee indexes are included. Twenty hardbound volumes and two cumulative indexes have been published to date, and some still may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Current Antarctic Literature is a printout of abstracts issued monthly by the Library of Congress staff that produces the Antarctic Bibliography. It is available free to working scientists and librarians. Write the Polar Information Program, Office of Polar Programs (or e-mail dfriscic@nsf.gov). To assure prompt entry of your research papers into the Antarctic Bibliography please send reprints to: Mr. Stuart Hibben, Head Cold Regions Bibliography Project Science and Technology Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 tel. 202-707-1181 fax 202-707-1125 G. Automated access to Antarctic Bibliography Online searching of Antarctic Bibliography citations since 1961 and of the companion Bibliography on Cold Regions Science and Technology can be performed on the COLD database, offered by Orbit Search Service, 8000 Westpark Drive, McLean, Virginia 22102 (800-456-7248 or 703-442- 0900). The Antarctic Bibliography and the Bibliography on Cold Regions Science and Technology, along with a number of other polar data bases, are on Arctic and Antarctic Regions, a CD- ROM disk that is updated twice a year. Copies are at U.S. antarctic facilities, at the International Center in Christchurch, and at NSF in Arlington, Virginia. For sales or further inquiries regarding the CD-ROM only: NISC Engineering Research Center Suite 6, Wyman Towers 3100 St. Paul Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218 tel. 410-243-0797 H. Bibliography, pre-1951 An Antarctic Bibliography (NAVAER 10-35-591) prepared by the U.S. Naval Photographic Interpretation Center in 1951 was reprinted by the Greenwood Press, 51 Riverside Avenue, Westport, Connecticut 06880 (tel. 203-226-3571). The 147- page hardbound volume lists and indexes some 5,500 titles, covering the scientific, technical, and popular literature published from the earliest times to 1951. I. Background and reference materials Most results of antarctic research are published as papers in scientific journals, which are referenced in the Antarctic Bibliography. The following books and articles have been selected, somewhat arbitrarily, as representing the history and present status of antarctic exploration and research. History Little America (1930, 420 p.), Discovery (1935, 405 p.), and Alone (1938, 296 p.), by Richard E. Byrd (New York, Putnams). The first two are the official narratives of the first and second Byrd expeditions. The third described Byrd's vigil alone on the Ross Ice Shelf. The Worst Journey in the World, by Apsley Cherry- Garrard (first published 1922). A member of Scott's last expedition describes the expedition and a winter journey between McMurdo Sound and Cape Crozier. This antarctic classic has been reprinted many times in several editions. Cold. The Record of an Antarctic Sledge Journey, by L. M. Gould (New York, Brewer, Warren, and Putnam, 1931). Quest for a Continent, by Walter Sullivan (McGraw Hill, 1957). 357 p. History of antarctic exploration to late 1950s. Endurance, Shackleton's Incredible Voyage, by Alfred Lansing (New York, McGraw Hill, 1959). 284 p. Shackleton's 2-year adventure. 90 Degrees South: The Story of the American South Pole Conquest, by Paul A. Siple (New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1959). The author was first station science leader at the Pole. Antarctic Conquest: The Great Explorers in Their Own Words, edited by Walker Chapman (Bobbs Merrill, 1965). 368 p. Anthology. Americans in Antarctica 1775-1948, by Kenneth J. Bertrand (New York, American Geographical Society, 1971). 554 p. Authoritative history of U.S. involvement. Antarctica: Authentic Accounts of Life and Exploration, edited by Charles Neider (New York, Random House, 1972). 464 p. Anthology plus editor's personal narrative. Little America: Town at the Bottom of the World, by Paul A. Carter (New York, Columbia University Press, 1979). 301 p. History emphasizing Byrd's expeditions. Scott and Amundsen, by Roland Huntford (New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1980). 665 p. Comparative biography. General Encyclopædia Britannica, ``Antarctica.'' 18 p. Frozen Future: A Prophetic Report from Antarctica, edited by Richard S. Lewis and Philip M. Smith (Quadrangle Books, 1973). 454 p. Antarctica as political and scientific laboratory. Edge of the World: Ross Island, Antarctica, by Charles Neider (Doubleday, 1974). 461 p. Personal and historical narrative. Life at the Bottom: The People of Antarctica, by John Langone (Boston, Little, Brown, 1977). 262 p. Anecdotal narrative. Antarctica, by Eliot Porter (New York, E. P. Dutton, 1978). 169 p. Eighty-seven color photographs plus text. The New Explorers: Women in Antarctica, by Barbara Land (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1981). 224 p. ``A reporter at large (Antarctica): South of 60 degrees south,'' by Katherine Bouton. The New Yorker, 23 March 1981, p. 42-122. A Pole Apart: The Emerging Issue of Antarctica, by Philip W. Quigg (New York, McGraw Hill, 1983). 299 p. Roundup of political and scientific concerns. Antarctica: Great Stories from the Frozen Continent (Surry Hills, New South Wales, Australia: Readers Digest Pty Limited, 1985). 320 p. Detailed overall review of past and present activities. Antarctica: The Continuing Experiment, by Philip W. Quigg (New York, Foreign Policy Association, Headline Series No. 273, March/April 1985). 62 p. The Seventh Continent: Antarctica in a Resource Age, by Deborah Shapley (Washington, Resources for the Future, 1986). 315 p. Review of antarctic affairs. Antarctic Treaty System: Politics, Law, and Diplomacy, by J.D. Myhre (Boulder, Westview Press, 1986). 162 p. Includes a draft text of the proposed minerals regime for Antarctica. Antarctic Treaty System: An Assessment. Proceedings of a Workshop Held at Beardmore South Field Camp, Antarctica, edited by Polar Research Board. (National Academy Press, 1986), 435 p. South Light, by Michael Parfit. Macmillan Publishing Co., 1986. Book based on a 3-month sojourn with the U.S. Antarctic Program. The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica, by Stephen J. Pyne (Iowa City, University of Iowa Press, 1986). 428 p. Judged by the New York Times Book Review as one of the 16 best books of the year. Paperbound: Ballantine Books, 1988. Natural History of the Antarctic Peninsula, by Sanford Moss, illustrations by Lucia deLeiris (Columbia University Press, 1988). 208 p. The Sea and the Ice, by Louis J. Halle (Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1973). 286 p. [Cornell Paperbacks edition published 1989 by Cornell University Press.] Personal narrative of a voyage by icebreaker. Antarctic Comrades: An American with the Russians in Antarctica, by Gilbert Dewart (Ohio State University Press, 1989). 194 p. Glasnost during the era of Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Krushchev. Wild Ice: Antarctic Journeys, by Ron Naveen, Colin Monteath, Tui de Roy, and Mark Jones (Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990). 224 p incl 175 color illus. Four authors collaborate to present textual and photographic images of Antarctica. The Crystal Desert: Summers in Antarctica, by David G. Campbell (Houghton Mifflin, 1993). A biologist's three seasons with the Brazilian program. ``Offshore: A Journey to the Weddell Sea,'' by Barry Lopez. Orion, Winter 1994. An esteemed writer accompanies the research icebreaker Nathaniel B. Palmer from Louisiana to Antarctica. Research goals and recommendations The National Academy of Sciences has published a series of recommended research objectives and related reports. The National Science Foundation has provided partial financial support for this activity. For a list of the reports, or to obtain copies, contact the Polar Research Board, 2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418 (tel. 202- 334-3479). Some recent reports: Prospects and concerns for remote sensing of snow and ice. 1990. The role of Antarctica in global change. 28 p. 1989. Physical oceanography and tracer chemistry of the southern ocean. 82 p. 1988. Data coordination and career stimulation in polar biomedical research. 39 p. 1988. ``Laboratory Antarctica: research contributions to global problems,'' Science, 4 December 1987 (p. 1361-1368) and 22 January 1988 (p. 335). Antarctic solid-earth sciences research: a guide for the next decade and beyond. 40 p. 1986. Recommendations for a U.S. ice coring program. 67 p. 1986. U.S. research in Antarctica in 2000 a.d. and beyond: a preliminary assessment. 35 p. 1986. Research emphases for the U.S. Antarctic Program. 126 p. 1983. U.S. Government publications Unless otherwise indicated, the National Science Foundation publishes these items. Order those with NSF numbers from Publications, NSF, Arlington, Virginia 22230 (703-306-1130, pubs@nsf.gov). Some older NSF antarctic publications can be obtained from the Foundation's Polar Information Program (703-306-1031; dfriscic@nsf.gov). Antarctic Research Proposal Guide (Annex) (NSF 94-62). You need this book and the next two to prepare a research proposal to NSF. Antarctic Program Announcement and Proposal Guide (NSF 93-49). Grant Proposal Guide (NSF 94-2). Guide to Programs (NSF 93-167). Describes areas of NSF grant support. United States Antarctic Program (NSF 91-92, color brochure). Antarctic Journal of the United States (1966- ). National Science Foundation. Free to U.S. Antarctic Program participants from Office of Polar Programs. All others: Contact Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. Quarterly news plus annual reviews of U.S. Antarctic Program. Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978 (NSF 89-59, 80 p.). This book contains the law, its regulations, maps of special areas, and a permit application form. Gazetteer of the Antarctic (NSF 89-98, xii + 145p). Contains the 12,362 place names (and their geographic coordinates) officially recognized by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names. Antarctic News Clips, 1994 (NSF 94-76, 185 p.). Polar Information Program. Latest annual collection of news clippings related to the U.S. Antarctic Program. Directorate for Geosciences and Office of Polar Programs Long Range Plan FY 1995-2000 (NSF 94-49, 62 p.). Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement for the United States Antarctic Program. National Science Foundation, October 1991. xxvi+431 p. Cooperative Agreements for Environmental Research in Support of U.S. Antarctic Program Environmental Management¾Program Solicitation (NSF 93-96) describes financial support available in this subprogram begun in 1993. Slides, movies, and videos An NSF contractor holds a large number of indexed antarctic slides that are available for public use. For information, contact: Capital Systems Group, Inc. 1355 Piccard Drive, Suite 350 Rockville, Maryland 20850 tel. 301-948-3033 fax 301-948-2242 Various antarctic videos may be borrowed from the above or from the Polar Information Program at NSF (703-306-1031). J. Science & Technology Information System NSF's free online Science & Technology Information System (STIS) provides access to many NSF documents, ranging from the phone book to announcements of research opportunities. It is available to any computer with vt100 emulation that can access a network or that has dialup capability. The service is free. For information: stisserv@nsf.gov, phone 703-306-0214. XIII. OPPORTUNITIES FOR PARTICIPATION Each year the United States deploys to Antarctica about 600 people to perform scientific research and about 1,800 people to operate and maintain year-round research stations and provide logistics in support of this research. These persons include research teams from academia, industry, and government, military personnel, and contractor employees. The National Science Foundation is the federal agency responsible for funding and managing U.S. activities in Antarctica, but the Foundation does not directly hire individuals. They are selected by participating organizations and institutions as described below. Successful applicants will have been prepared through specialized study, training, or experience in polar-related topics. Opportunities fall into these categories: Scientist. Scientific opportunities in Antarctica center on terrestrial and marine biology, medical research, meteorology, glaciology, the earth sciences, the ocean sciences, atmospheric physics, and astronomy. Eligibility generally is limited to U.S. scientists with advanced degrees, who initiate proposals that are submitted by their employing organizations. Graduate students are not encouraged to submit research proposals, but are welcome as members of research teams. Scientist's assistant. The scientist who submits a successful proposal typically is authorized to assemble a research team to help implement his or her project in the field. Preference is given to graduate and undergraduate students in the pertinent scientific discipline. Although assistants usually are chosen from within the scientist's organization, a well qualified individual may be successful in joining the team. The Foundation encourages investigators to include qualified young people (high school graduates and beyond) in their field projects and offers several programs to fund such participation. The Foundation's Antarctic Journal of the United States lists recent awardees and the titles of their research. Inquiries should be directed to the awardee, not to the Foundation. Technician or field assistant (support contractor). Because of the far flung and difficult environment of Antarctica, the program has many supporting persons. These people operate stations, laboratories, machinery, and research ships, build or renovate facilities, maintain vehicles, outfit field parties, and manage camps. Many trades and levels of skill are involved. A contractor is empowered by the Foundation to do hiring for performance of these tasks. The current contract is with Antarctic Support Associates. Employment enquiries should be directed to Antarctic Support Associates, 61 Inverness Drive East, Suite 300, Englewood, Colorado 80112, 800-688-8606. Direct inquiries to the contractor, not the Foundation. Active duty military. The U.S. Navy operates helicopters and airplanes in the Antarctic Program and performs other logistics functions. The Coast Guard operates icebreakers in Antarctica to escort supply ships and support science. Employment with these organizations generally is limited to active duty service personnel and involves a long-term commitment that might not include antarctic service. Direct inquiries to a Navy recruiter or the Coast Guard, Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C. 20590. Public information representative. Each year the Foundation endeavors to send a small number of members of the press or television crews to Antarctica to observe and report on U.S. activities. Selection is based on ability to understand and present scientific subjects, written commitment from employing organization, and expected size of audience. Contact: Public Information Branch (703-306- 1070) or Polar Information Program (703-306-1031), NSF. Artist or writer. To enable interpretation and presentation of the Nation's antarctic heritage, the Foundation's Antarctic Artists & Writers Program will consider requests from particularly well qualified writers, historians, artists, or others in the liberal arts to work in Antarctica. This is a limited opportunity that provides field support but no direct award of funds. The successful candidate will be well established and working full time in the appropriate field and will have a means of presenting his or her work to the public. Ask the Polar Information Program for USAP Information Series No. 31, Antarctic Artists & Writers Program. Excluded categories. Because some types of activities are not considered to contribute to the U.S. mission for Antarctica, NSF will not consider or approve applications for participation in the program in these categories: private expeditions by mountain climbers or adventurers, visits to promote commercial products, photography (except as in one of the above categories), ``space-available'' passage on support aircraft flights, and sightseeing or other superficial visits. The support organizations are also bound by this National policy. The Government does not provide support to private expeditions, but does not discourage citizens from participating in such expeditions if they are self-sufficient and meet environmental standards. Equal opportunity. The National Science Foundation and its contractors and grantees are equal opportunity employers. Women and members of minority groups are encouraged to apply for participation in all aspects of the U.S. Antarctic Program. A number of NSF programs specifically encourage such participation and are described in the Foundation's annually updated Guide to Programs, available from NSF Publications (address above). XIV. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION Inquiries regarding opportunities for scientific research project support, employment, specific research results, availability of specimens and data, and other aspects of the U.S. Antarctic Program may be directed to the Polar Information Program, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Virginia 22230. Telephone: 703-306-1031. Facsimile: 703-306-0139. Electronic mail: dfriscic@nsf.gov. XV. METRIC SYSTEM NSF encourages use of the metric system, and this manual uses metric where practical. Here are some conversions: 1 centimeter = 2.54 inches 1 meter = 3.28 feet 1 kilometer = 0.621 mile 1 kilometer = 0.540 nautical mile 1 kilogram = 2.20 pounds 1 kilowatt = 1.34 horsepower 1 square meter = 10.8 square feet 1 meter per second = 2.24 miles per hour 1 foot = 0.305 meter 1 inch = 2.540 centimeters 1 mile = 1.609 kilometers 1 nautical mile = 1.151 miles 1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometers 1 pound = 0.454 kilogram 1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatt 1 square foot = 0.093 square meter 1 mile per hour = 0.447 meter per second XVI. GLOSSARY ASA¾Antarctic Support Associates, the National Science Foundation's antarctic support contractor CCAMLR¾Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, a part of the Antarctic Treaty system CD-ROM¾Compact disk, read-only memory: a high capacity storage medium for electronic data CNSFA¾Commander, Naval Support Force, Antarctica: the senior Navy official in the U.S. Antarctic Program Continental system¾The part of the USAP that centers on McMurdo Station, including South Pole and field camps supported from McMurdo EPA¾Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Government IAC¾International Antarctic Center, Christchurch, New Zealand IGY¾International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958 LC-130¾Ski-equipped four-engine Lockheed Hercules turboprop airplane NASU¾Naval Antarctic Support Unit, Christchurch, New Zealand NGA¾Nongovernmental activity NSF¾National Science Foundation, an agency of the U.S. Government NSFA¾Naval Support Force, Antarctica OPP¾Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation Peninsula system¾The part of the USAP that includes Palmer Station, Polar Duke, and other operations in the Antarctic Peninsula area SCAR¾Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research, of the International Council of Scientific Unions, a nongovernmental organization SEH¾Safety, environment, and health: specifically, a 5-year initiative, begun in 1990, to improve these functions in the U.S. Antarctic Program SPA¾Specially Protected Area, an Antarctic Treaty designation SSSI¾Site of Special Scientific Interest, an Antarctic Treaty designation SUREPA¾Senior U.S. Representative, Antarctica, appointed by the Director of NSF to oversee U.S. Government activities in Antarctica UH-1N¾Twin-turbine Bell Huey helicopter USAF¾United States Air Force USAP¾United States Antarctic Program, the U.S. Government's program for research and related activities regarding Antarctica USARP¾United States Antarctic Research Program, the program of scientific research supported in USAP USCG¾U.S. Coast Guard USGS¾United States Geological Survey USN¾United States Navy VHF¾Very high frequency: VHF radios are used locally around stations and ships VXE-6¾Antarctic Development Squadron 6, U.S. Navy, the USAP aviation unit APPENDIX 1 THE ANTARCTIC TREATY The 12 nations listed in the preamble (below) signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1 December 1959 at Washington, D.C. The treaty entered into force on 23 June 1961; the 12 signatories became the original 12 consultative nations. As of mid-1994, 14 additional nations (Brazil, China, Ecuador, Finland, Germany, India, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Republic of Korea, Peru, Sweden, Spain, and Uruguay) have achieved consultative status by acceding to the treaty and by conducting substantial scientific research in Antarctica. Russia carries forward the signatory privileges and responsibilities established by the former Soviet Union. Another 16 nations have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala, Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania, Slovak Republic, Switzerland, and Ukraine. These nations agree to abide by the treaty and may attend consultative meetings as observers. The 42 Antarctic Treaty nations represent about two- thirds of the world's human population. Consultative meetings have been held approximately every other year since the treaty entered into force, but since 1993 they have been held annually. Each meeting has generating recommendations regarding operation of the treaty that, when ratified by the participating governments, become binding on the parties to the treaty. Additional meetings within the Antarctic Treaty system have produced agreements on conservation of seals, conservation of living resources, and comprehensive environmental protection. What follows is the complete text of the Antarctic Treaty. The headings for each article were added by the National Science Foundation and are unofficial. [preamble] The Governments of Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, the French Republic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the Union of South Africa, The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America, Recognizing that it is in the interest of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord; Acknowledging the substantial contributions to scientific knowledge resulting from international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica; Convinced that the establishment of a firm foundation for the continuation and development of such cooperation on the basis of freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica as applied during the International Geophysical Year accords with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind; Convinced also that a treaty ensuring the use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only and the continuance of international harmony in Antarctica will further the purposes and principles embodied in the Charter of the United Nations; Have agreed as follows: Article I [Antarctica for peaceful purposes only] 1. Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only. There shall be prohibited, inter alia, any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, as well as the testing of any type of weapons. 2. The present Treaty shall not prevent the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes. Article II [freedom of scientific investigation to continue] Freedom of scientific investigation in Antarctica and cooperation toward that end, as applied during the International Geophysical Year, shall continue, subject to the provisions of the present Treaty. Article III [plans and results to be exchanged] 1. In order to promote international cooperation in scientific investigation in Antarctica, as provided for in Article II of the present Treaty, the Contracting Parties agree that, to the greatest extent feasible and practicable: (a) information regarding plans for scientific programs in Antarctica shall be exchanged to permit maximum economy and efficiency of operations; (b) scientific personnel shall be exchanged in Antarctica between expeditions and stations; (c) scientific observations and results from Antarctica shall be exchanged and made freely available. 2. In implementing this Article, every encouragement shall be given to the establishment of cooperative working relations with those Specialized Agencies of the United Nations and other international organizations having a scientific or technical interest in Antarctica. Article IV [territorial claims] 1. Nothing contained in the present Treaty shall be interpreted as: (a) a renunciation by any Contracting Party of previously asserted rights of or claims to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica; (b) a renunciation or diminution by any Contracting Party of any basis of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica which it may have whether as a result of its activities or those of its nationals in Antarctica, or otherwise; (c) prejudicing the position of any Contracting Party as regards its recognition or nonrecognition of any other State's right of or claim or basis of claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. 2. No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica. No new claim, or enlargement of an existing claim, to territorial sovereignty shall be asserted while the present Treaty is in force. Article V [nuclear explosions prohibited] 1. Any nuclear explosions in Antarctica and the disposal there of radioactive waste material shall be prohibited. 2. In the event of the conclusion of international agreements concerning the use of nuclear energy, including nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste material, to which all of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX are parties, the rules established under such agreements shall apply in Antarctica. Article VI [area covered by Treaty] The provisions of the present Treaty shall apply to the area south of 60o South latitude, including all ice shelves, but nothing in the present Treaty shall prejudice or in any way affect the rights, or the exercise of the rights, of any State under international law with regard to the high seas within that area. Article VII [free access for observation and inspection] 1. In order to promote the objectives and ensure the observation of the provisions of the present Treaty, each Contracting Party whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings referred to in Article IX of the Treaty shall have the right to designate observers to carry out any inspection provided for by the present Article. Observers shall be nationals of the Contracting Parties which designate them. The names of the observers shall be communicated to every other Contracting Party having the right to designate observers, and like notice shall be given of the termination of their appointment. 2. Each observer designated in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article shall have complete freedom of access at any time to any or all areas of Antarctica. 3. All areas of Antarctica, including all stations, installations and equipment within those areas, and all ships and aircraft at points of discharging or embarking cargoes or personnel in Antarctica, shall be open at all times to inspection by any observers designated in accordance with paragraph 1 of this Article. 4. Aerial observation may be carried out at any time over any or all areas of Antarctica by any of the Contracting Parties having the right to designate observers. 5. Each Contracting Party shall, at the time when the present Treaty enters into force for it, inform the other Contracting Parties, and thereafter shall give them notice in advance, of (a) all expeditions to and within Antarctica, on the part of its ships of nationals, and all expeditions to Antarctica organized in or proceeding from its territory; (b) all stations in Antarctica occupied by its nationals; and (c) any military personnel or equipment intended to be introduced by it into Antarctica subject to the conditions prescribed in paragraph 2 of Article I of the present Treaty. Article VIII [personnel under jurisdiction of their own states] 1. In order to facilitate the exercise of their functions under the present Treaty, and without prejudice to the respective positions of the Contracting Parties relating to jurisdiction over all other persons in Antarctica, observers designated under paragraph 1 of Article VII and scientific personnel exchanged under subparagraph 1(b) of Article III of the Treaty, and members of the staffs accompanying any such persons, shall be subject only to the jurisdiction of the Contracting Party of which they are nationals in respect to all acts or omissions occurring while they are in Antarctica for the purpose of exercising their functions. 2. Without prejudice to the provisions of paragraph 1 of this Article, and pending the adoption of measures in pursuance of subparagraph 1(e) of Article IX, the Contracting Parties concerned in any case of dispute with regard to the exercise of jurisdiction in Antarctica shall immediately consult together with a view to reaching a mutually acceptable solution. Article IX [Treaty states to meet periodically] 1. Representatives of the Contracting Parties named in the preamble to the present Treaty shall meet at the City of Canberra within two months after date of entry into force of the Treaty, and thereafter at suitable intervals and places, for the purpose of exchanging information, consulting together on matters of common interest pertaining to Antarctica, and formulating and considering, and recommending to their Governments, measures in furtherance of the principles and objectives of the Treaty including measures regarding: (a) use of Antarctica for peaceful purposes only; (b) facilitation of scientific research in Antarctica; (c) facilitation of international scientific cooperation in Antarctica; (d) facilitation of the exercise of the rights of inspection provided for in Article VII of the Treaty; (e) questions relating to the exercise of jurisdiction in Antarctica; (f) preservation and conservation of living resources in Antarctica. 2. Each Contracting Party which has become a party to the present Treaty by accession under Article XIII shall be entitled to appoint representatives to participate in the meetings referred to in paragraph 1 of the present Article, during such time as the Contracting Party demonstrates its interest in Antarctica by conducting substantial scientific research activity there, such as the establishment of a scientific station or the despatch of a scientific expedition. 3. Reports from the observers referred to in Article VII of the present Treaty shall be transmitted to the representatives of the Contracting Parties participating in the meetings referred to in paragraph 1 of the present Article. 4. The measures referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article shall become effective when approved by all the Contracting Parties whose representatives were entitled to participate in the meetings held to consider those measures. 5. Any or all of the rights established in the present Treaty may be exercised as from the date of entry into force of the Treaty whether or not any measures facilitating the exercise of such rights have been proposed, considered or approved as provided in this Article. Article X [discourages activities contrary to Treaty] Each of the Contracting Parties undertakes to exert appropriate efforts, consistent with the Charter of the United Nations, to the end that no one engages in any activity in Antarctica contrary to the principles or purposes of the present Treaty. Article XI [settlement of disputes] 1. If any dispute arises between two or more of the Contracting Parties concerning the interpretation or application of the present Treaty, those Contracting Parties shall consult among themselves with a view to having the dispute resolved by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement or other peaceful means of their own choice. 2. Any dispute of this character not so resolved shall, with the consent, in each case, of all parties to the dispute, be referred to the International Court of Justice for settlement; but failure to reach agreement on reference to the International Court shall not absolve parties to the dispute from the responsibility of continuing to seek to resolve it by any of the various peaceful means referred to in paragraph 1 of this Article. Article XII [review of Treaty possible after 30 years] 1. (a) The present Treaty may be modified or amended at any time by unanimous agreement of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX. Any such modification or amendment shall enter into force when the depositary Government has received notice from all such Contracting Parties that they have ratified it. (b) Such modification or amendment shall thereafter enter into force as to any other Contracting Party when notice of ratification by it has been received by the depositary Government. Any such Contracting Party from which no notice of ratification is received within a period of two years from the date of entry into force of the modification or amendment in accordance with the provisions of subparagraph 1(a) of this Article shall be deemed to have withdrawn from the present Treaty on the date of the expiration of such period. 2. (a) If after the expiration of thirty years from the date of entry into force of the present Treaty, any of the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX so requests by a communication addressed to the depositary Government, a Conference of all the Contracting Parties shall be held as soon as practicable to review the operation of the Treaty. (b) Any modification or amendment to the present Treaty which is approved at such a Conference by a majority of the Contracting Parties there represented, including a majority of those whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX, shall be communicated by the depositary Government to all the Contracting Parties immediately after the termination of the Conference and shall enter into force in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 1 of the present Article. (c) If any such modification or amendment has not entered into force in accordance with the provisions of subparagraph 1(a) of this Article within a period of two years after the date of its communication to all the Contracting Parties, any Contracting Party may at any time after the expiration of that period give notice to the depositary Government of its withdrawal from the present Treaty; and such withdrawal shall take effect two years after the receipt of the notice by the depositary Government. Article XIII [ratification and accession] 1. The present Treaty shall be subject to ratification by the signatory States. It shall be open for accession by any State which is a Member of the United Nations, or by any other State which may be invited to accede to the Treaty with the consent of all the Contracting Parties whose representatives are entitled to participate in the meetings provided for under Article IX of the Treaty. 2. Ratification of or accession to the present Treaty shall be effected by each State in accordance with its constitutional processes. 3. Instruments of ratification and instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, hereby designated as the depositary Government. 4. The depositary Government shall inform all signatory and acceding States of the date of each deposit of an instrument of ratification or accession, and the date of entry into force of the Treaty and of any modification or amendment thereto. 5. Upon the deposit of instruments of ratification by all the signatory States, the present Treaty shall enter into force for those States and for States which have deposited instruments of accession. Thereafter the Treaty shall enter into force for any acceding State upon the deposit of its instrument of accession. 6. The present Treaty shall be registered by the depositary Government pursuant to Article 102 of the Charter of the United Nations. Article XIV [United States is repository] The present Treaty, done in the English, French, Russian, and Spanish languages, each version being equally authentic, shall be deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America, which shall transmit duly certified copies thereof to the Governments of the signatory and acceding States. In witness whereof, the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, duly authorized, have signed the present Treaty. Done at Washington the first day of December, one thousand nine hundred and fifty-nine. For Argentina: Adolfo Seilingo F. Bello For Australia: Howard Beale For Belgium: Obert de Thieusies For Chile: Marcial Mora M. L. Gajardo V. Julio Escudero For the French Republic: Pierre Charpentier For Japan: Koichiro Asakai T. Shimoda For New Zealand: G.D.L. White For Norway: Paul Koht For the Union of South Africa: Wentzel C. du Plessis For the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: V. Kuznetsov For the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: Harold Caccia For the United States of America: Herman Phleger Paul C. Daniels APPENDIX 2 PRESIDENT'S MEMORANDUM REGARDING ANTARCTICA Memorandum 6646 February 5, 1982 THE WHITE HOUSE WASHINGTON MEMORANDUM FOR THE SECRETARY OF STATE THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE THE SECRETARY OF TRANSPORTATION THE SECRETARY OF ENERGY THE DIRECTOR, OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET THE DIRECTOR OF CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE CHAIRMAN, JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF DIRECTOR, ARMS CONTROL AND DISARMAMENT AGENCY DIRECTOR, OFFICE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY ADMINISTRATOR, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY DIRECTOR, NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION SUBJECT: United States Antarctic Policy and Programs I have reviewed the Antarctic Policy Group's study of United States interests in Antarctica and related policy and program considerations, as forwarded by the Department of State on November 13, 1981, and have decided that: ØThe United States Antarctic Program shall be maintained at a level providing an active and influential presence in Antarctica designed to support the range of U.S. antarctic interests. ØThis presence shall include the conduct of scientific activities in major disciplines; year-round occupation of the South Pole and two coastal stations; and availability of related necessary logistics support. ØEvery effort shall be made to manage the program in a manner that maximizes cost effectiveness and return on investment. I have also decided that the National Science Foundation shall continue to: Øbudget for and manage the entire United States national program in Antarctica, including logistic support activities so that the program may be managed as a single package; Øfund university research and federal agency programs related to Antarctica; Ødraw upon logistic support capabilities of government agencies on a cost reimbursable basis; and Øuse commercial support and management facilities where these are determined to be cost effective and will not, in the view of the Group, be detrimental to the national interest. Other agencies may, however, fund and undertake directed short-term programs of scientific activity related to Antarctica upon the recommendation of the Antarctic Policy Group and subject to the budgetary review process. Such activities shall be coordinated within the framework of the National Science Foundation logistics support. The expenditures and commitment of resource necessary to maintain an active and influential presence in Antarctica, including the scientific activities and stations in the Antarctic, shall be reviewed and determined as p[art of the normal budget process. To ensure that the United States Antarctic Program is not funded at the expense of other National Science Foundation programs, the OMB will provide specific budgetary guidance for the antarctic program. To ensure that the United States has the necessary flexibility and operational reach in the area, the Departments of Defense and Transportation shall continue to provide, on a reimbursable basis, the logistic support requested by the National Science Foundation and to develop, in collaboration with the Foundation, logistic arrangements and cost structure required for effective and responsive program support at minimum cost. With respect to the upcoming negotiations on a regime covering antarctic mineral resources, the Antarctic Policy Group shall prepare a detailed U.S. position and instructions. These should be forwarded for my consideration by May 15, 1982. Ronald Reagan CONTENTS Introduction 1 I. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF ANTARCTICA 1 II. CURRENT YEAR-ROUND U.S. STATIONS 1 A. McMurdo (77o51'S 166o40'E) 1 B. Amundsen-Scott South Pole (90oS) 2 C. Palmer (64o46'S 64o03'W) 2 III. SUMMER CAMPS 3 A. Byrd Surface Camp (80oS 120oW) 3 B. Major camps 3 C. Huts 3 D. Tents 3 IV. FORMER STATIONS (SELECTED) 3 A. Hallett Station (72o19'S 170o13'E) 3 B. Byrd Station (80oS 120oW) 3 C. Plateau Station (79o15'S 40o30'E) 3 D. Dome C (74o30'S 123o10'E) 4 E. Siple (75o55'S 83o55'W) 4 F. Eights Station (75o10'S 77o10'W) 4 G. Little America 4 H. East Base (68o11'S 67o00'W) 4 V. TRANSPORTATION; RESEARCH PLATFORMS 4 A. LC-130 Hercules 4 B. Twin Otter 5 C. Helicopters 5 D. C-141 Starlifter and C-5 Galaxy 5 E. R/V Polar Duke 5 F. Nathaniel B. Palmer 5 G. U.S. academic research ships 5 H. Icebreakers 5 I. USNS tanker 6 J. USNS Green Wave 6 K. Inflatable boats 6 L. Ground transportation 6 VI. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 6 A. Aeronomy and astrophysics 6 B. Biology and medical research 7 C. Earth sciences 7 D. Ocean and climate systems 8 E. Glaciology 8 F. Environmental research 9 G. Instrumentation 9 VII. AGENCY RESPONSIBILITIES 9 A. Antarctic Working Group 9 B. National Science Foundation 9 C. Department of Defense 9 D. Department of Transportation 10 E. Department of State 10 F. Budget 10 VIII. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 10 A. Antarctic Treaty 10 B. Managers of National Antarctic Programs 10 C. Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research 10 D. Bilateral and multilateral cooperation 11 IX. U.S. POLICY FOR ANTARCTICA 11 X. PAST U.S. ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS 12 A. Before International Geophysical Year 12 B. International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958 12 C. United States Antarctic Program 12 XI. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 13 A. Treaties and laws that protect the environment 13 B. Conservation and environmental procedures 13 C. Recent initiatives 14 D. Former stations 15 E. Studies 15 XII. PUBLICATIONS 15 A. Maps 15 B. Library of aerial photographs and maps 15 C. Hydrographic charts 15 D. Aeronautical charts 16 E. Place names 16 F. Bibliographies, 1951-present 16 G. Automated access to Antarctic Bibliography 16 H. Bibliography, pre-1951 16 I. Background and reference materials 16 J. Science & Technology Information System 18 XIII. OPPORTUNITIES FOR PARTICIPATION 19 XIV. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION 19 XV. METRIC SYSTEM 20 XVI. GLOSSARY 20 THE ANTARCTIC TREATY 21 PRESIDENT'S MEMORANDUM 26