Norman R. AugustineMr. Augustine, Chairman of the U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel, is Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of the Lockheed Martin Corporation. He has served as Chairman of the Defense Science Board, the National Academy of Engineering, the White House/NASA Advisory Committee on the Future of the U.S. Space Program, and the Aeronautics Panel of the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board, as well as President of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. He holds a B.S.E. and M.S.E. from Princeton University, is the recipient of more than 10 honorary degrees and is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He has served as a Trustee of Princeton University and Johns Hopkins University, and as a member of the Advisory Board of The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. He is a former Assistant Director of Defense Research and Engineering in the Office of the Secretary of Defense and a former Under Secretary of the Army. Mr. Augustine has been to Antarctica twice and to the South Pole once.
Richard AlleyDr. Alley is a Professor of Geosciences and Associate of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University, University Park, where he has worked since 1988. He graduated with a Ph.D. in 1987 from University of Wisconsin and earned M.S. (1983) and B.S. (1980) degrees from Ohio State University, all in Geology. Dr. Alley teaches and conducts research on the climatic records, flow behavior, and sedimentary deposits of large ice sheets to aid in prediction of future changes in climate and sea level. He is a Packard Fellow, a former Presidential Young Investigator, and the 1996 recipient of the Horton Award of the American Geophysical Union Hydrology Section. Dr. Alley has served on a variety of advisory panels and steering committees for the National Science Foundation, targeted research activities, and professional societies. His Polar experience includes three field seasons in Antarctica, one to the Pole and five in Greenland.
John B. AndersonDr. Anderson is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Geology and Geophysics at Rice University. He earned his Ph.D. from Florida State University, an M.S. from University of New Mexico and a B.S. from University of South Alabama. He has published 160 articles and has written 150 abstracts, most dealing with Antarctic marine geology and coastal evolution. He has written or contributed to three books Glacial Marine Sedimentation, Paleoclimatic Significance of Glacial Marine Deposits, and Antarctic Marine Geology. Dr. Anderson was the Associate Editor of Geology from 1991 to 1993. He currently serves on the editorial boards of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and the American Geophysical Union-Antarctic Research Series. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences Polar Research Board, and a member of the Steering Committee-West Antarctic Ice Sheet Study. He received the 1992 Gulf Coast Association of Geological Studies Outstanding Educator Award and the 1996 Rice University Graduate Teaching Award. Dr. Anderson has made 18 expeditions to Antarctica and the Southern Ocean region.
Rita R. ColwellDr. Colwell is President of the University of Maryland Biotechnology Institute and Professor of Microbiology. She received her B.S. and M.S. degrees from Purdue University and her Ph.D. from the University of Washington, Seattle. Dr. Colwell has received several honorary degrees, including an honorary Doctor of Science from her Alma Mater, Purdue University. Dr. Colwell was named the 1996 Maryland Legislature Outstanding Woman of the Year. Her other awards include the Medal of Distinction from Barnard College, Columbia University; Andrew White Medal, Loyola College; Purkinje Gold Medal, Czechoslovakia Academy of Sciences; the Maryland State Civic Award (presented by Governor Schaefer); and the Fisher Award, American Society for Microbiology. Dr. Colwell is a past President and Board Chairman of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and has served as President of the International Union of Microbiological Societies, the American Society of Microbiology, and Sigma Xi. She is a Member of the Health and Environment Research Advisory Committee (HERAC), Department of Energy; Board of Trustees, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh; and Science Board, Food and Drug Administration. Dr. Colwell chaired the Crary Science and Engineering Center Panel, Division (now Office) of Polar Programs, and the Polar Research Committee, National Science Board, and served as Vice-Chair, Polar Research Board, National Academy of Sciences. Dr. Colwell has traveled to Antarctica four times and has made four trips to the South Pole.
Charles E. HessDr. Hess is Director of International Programs at the University of California, Davis. He earned his Ph.D. in Physiology, Horticulture and Plant Pathology and an M.S. degree from Cornell University, and holds an B.S. degree from Rutgers University. He is a former Assistant Secretary for Science and Education at the Department of Agriculture. He served as a Member and Vice-Chair of the National Science Board, Member of the U.S. Antarctic Safety Review Panel, and Member of the NSB Committee on the National Science Foundation Role in Polar Regions, which recommended the construction of the Crary Science and Engineering Center. Dr. Hess has made five trips to Antarctica and four trips to the South Pole.
Hansford T. (H.T.) JohnsonGeneral Johnson, USAF (Ret), is Chairman of the Greater Kelly Development Corp. in San Antonio, Texas. He is responsible for leading the transformation of the $7.5 billion Air Force depot into an industrial center that will perform government and commercial work. He served as the President and CEO of USAA Capital Corp. and was a member of the 1993 Base Closure Commission. As Commander in Chief of the U.S. Transportation Command, he led the movement of the troops and equipment to Panama in 1989 and the Persian Gulf in 1990-91. His command was also responsible for the air and sea lift to Antarctica, and he landed a C-5 Galaxy on the ice at McMurdo Station in 1991. Gen. Johnson was the Deputy Commander of the U.S. Central Command during the escorting of the Kuwaiti tankers through the Persian Gulf and Head of Operations in the Strategic Air Command during the raid on Libya in 1986. Gen. Johnson's responsibilities have included balancing Air Force programs at successive lower levels during a period of "downsizing." He was a combat pilot in Vietnam and was a graduate of the first class and later served as Assistant Professor of the USAF Academy. He holds Masters Degrees from Stanford in Aeronautics and Colorado in Business. Gen. Johnson has been to Antarctica twice and the South Pole once.
Lewis E. Link, Jr.Dr. Link is the Director of Research and Development of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Prior to this assignment, he served as the Director and Technical Director of the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory in Hanover, New Hampshire, and Fairbanks, Alaska, the principal federal center of expertise for cold regions engineering research serving both the Department of Defense (DoD) and civilian agencies. He has served as the Assistant Chief of the Corps at the Coastal Engineering Research Center and has been active in research, publishing over 90 technical papers and reports. He has served on or chaired advisory boards and technical committees for NASA, American Society of Civil Engineers, Society of American Military Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, NATO, the Department of Defense, and various universities. Dr. Link earned a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from Pennsylvania State University, a M.S. in Civil Engineering from Mississippi State University and a B.S. in Geological Engineering from North Carolina State University. Dr. Link has been to Antarctica twice and to the South Pole twice.
Rudy K. PeschelRear Admiral Peschel, recently retired from the U .S. Coast Guard as Chief, Office of Navigation, overseeing that agency's polar operations, among other responsibilities concerning international and domestic waterway safety. Early-career aviation and sea duty took him to Arctic regions during the North Slope oil discovery and transportation development. Headquarters and field command billets involved him in capital planning, resource justification to the Office of Management and Budget and Congress, and major base transitions from the Department of Defense to USCG management. He was Deputy Commander of the multi-agency/multi-nation Western Hemisphere Drug Traffic Task Force and Commander of the ice-intensive Great Lakes District. He spent part of the 1996 icebreaking season at McMurdo Station and aboard USCGC Polar Star. He graduated in 1963 with a B.S. in Engineering from the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, in 1966 from Navy Flight Training at Pensacola, and in 1972 from Naval Postgraduate School at Monterey with an M.S. in Management Science. Adm. Peschel has been to the Antarctic and the South Pole twice.
Russell L. (Rusty) SchweickartMr. Schweickart is President and CEO of ALOHA Networks, Inc. (ANI). He received his B.S. and M. S. degrees from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1956 and 1963. He served in the Air Force and the Massachusetts Air National Guard as a fighter pilot. Selected by NASA in the third group of astronauts in 1963, he flew as the Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 9's flight to the Moon in March 1969. He served as Commander of the backup crew on the first Skylab mission and subsequently as a Program Manager at NASA Headquarters. In 1977, he joined the administration of Governor Jerry Brown of California as his Advisor for Science and Technology. Appointed by the Governor to the California Energy Commission in 1979, Mr. Schweickart served as its Chairman for five years. In 1985, he founded the Association of Space Explorers, the professional organization of astronauts and cosmonauts, and was later the founder and president of Courier Satellite Services, Inc., and Executive Vice President of CTA Commercial Systems, Inc. In 1987-88, Mr. Schweickart chaired the National Science Foundation's Antarctic Safety Review Panel producing the "Safety in Antarctica" report. Mr. Schweickart has been to Antarctica three times and to the South Pole twice.
Susan SolomonDr. Solomon is a Senior Scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Aeronomy Laboratory. She served as Head Project Scientist for the National Ozone Expedition at McMurdo Station, Antarctica, in l986-7, and has been a leader in ozone research for more than a decade. Her theoretical and observational work was key to identifying the cause of the Antarctic ozone hole, and she has received numerous honors in recognition of those studies. She is a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences and a foreign associate of the French Academie des Sciences. She has previously served as Chair of the Advisory Committee for the National Science Foundation's Division of Polar Programs and as a member of the Polar Research Board, National Research Council. She earned her M. S. and Ph.D. degrees in chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley, her B. S. degree from the Illinois Institute of Technology, and she has three honorary doctorate degrees. Dr. Solomon has been to Antarctica four times and to the South Pole once.
Edward C. StoneDr. Stone has been Director of the Jet Propulsion Labotatory (JPL) since January 1991, and a Vice President and David Morrisroe Professor of Physics at California Institute of Technology. He earned his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Physics from the University of Chicago. He is Chairman of the California Association for Research in Astronomy, which is responsible for the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii. Dr. Stone is a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society and the International Acacemy of Astronautics, and received the National Medal of Science from President Bush. He has been an investigator on 14 NASA missions and served as the Chief Scientist for the Voyager Mission. He has been to Antarctica once and to the South Pole once.
* * * * * *
The Panel expresses its heartfelt appreciation to Laura Cooper Herrera who handled all the mechanics of preparing the text of this report.
The Panel, in its deliberations, was greatly assisted by presentations by, or conversations with, the following individuals:
Dr. Joseph Bordogna, Acting Deputy Director
Mr. Bill Bryant, Contracting Officer, Contracts Policy and Oversight
Dr. Karl Erb, Senior Science Advisor, Office of the Director, and Liaison to the Panel
Mr. Guy Guthridge, Executive Secretary to the Panel, Office of the Director
Mr. Joseph Kull, Director - Budget and Finance Division, and Chief Financial Officer
Dr. Neal Lane, Director
Mr. Larry Rudolph, General Counsel
Mr. David Bresnahan, Systems Manager, Operations and Logistics
Mr. Frank Brier, Facilities, Engineering and Construction Program Manager
Mr. Erick Chiang, Acting Deputy Director
Mr. Dwight D. Fisher, Acting Section Head, Polar Research Support Section
Ms. Joyce Jatko, Environmental Officer
Dr. Harry Mahar, Safety and Health Officer
Mr. Al Martin, NSF Station Manager, McMurdo Station, Antarctica
Ms. Altie Metcalf, Budget and Planning Officer
Dr. Dennis Peacock, Section Head, Antarctic Sciences Section
Mr. John Rand, South Pole Engineering Projects Manager
Mr. Patrick D. Smith, Technology Development Project Manager
Dr. Cornelius W. Sullivan, Director
Mr. Alexander Sutherland, Ocean Projects Manager
Colonel Archibald Berberian, Chief of Staff, New York Air National Guard
Dr. William Detrich, Chair, Palmer Station Users Committee
Dr. Jay Farmwald, Director of Health Facilities, Alaska Public Health Service
Dr. Hank Grant, Decision Support Associates
Dr. Dave Hofmann, Director, Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory, NOAA
Mr. Jim Holik, Science Cruise Coordinator, Antarctic Support Associates
Ms. Kate Jensen, Former NOAA Field Team Leader at South Pole Station
Mr. Jon Kumin, Kumin and Associates
Dr. Donal Manahan, Chair, McMurdo Area Users Committee
Dr. Doug Martinson, Chair, Research Vessel Oversight Committee
Dr. Robert Morse, Chair, South Pole Users Committee
Dr. Samuel Mukasa, Chair, Office of Polar Programs Advisory Committee
Mr. Jerry Mullins, Polar Programs Manager, U.S. Geological Survey
Ms. Ann Peoples, Former ASA Station Manager for McMurdo and Palmer Stations
Ms. Karen Schwall-Meyers, Former ASA Station Manager, McMurdo Station
Captain C. Hugh Smith, USN, Commanding Officer, Naval Support Force Antarctica
Dr. H. Guyford Stever, Former Director, National Science Foundation
Dr. Robert Bindschadler, Glaciologist, NASA
The Honorable George E. Brown, Jr., U.S. House of Representatives
Mr. Harlan Cohen, Department of State
Dr. Jack Gibbons, Director, Office of Science and Technology Policy
Dr. T. J. Glauthier, Office of Management and Budget
The Honorable Jerry Lewis, U.S. House of Representatives
The Honorable Barbara A. Mikulski, United States Senate
Dr. Ernie Moniz, Associate Director for Science, Office of Science and Technology Policy
Dr. William Nitze, Assistant Administrator for Environmental Activities, EPA
Mr. R. Tucker Scully, Director of the Office of Oceans, Department of State
The Honorable F. James Sensenbrenner, Jr., U.S. House of Representatives
Mr. Brad Smith, Director, Strategic Environmental R&D Program Office, Arlington, Virginia
Mr. George Troup, Embassy of New Zealand, Washington, D. C.
Ms. Alexandra Tidswell, Embassy of New Zealand, Washington, D. C.
The Honorable Timothy E. Wirth, Assistant Secretary of State for Global Affairs
Ambassador John Wood, Embassy of New Zealand, Washington, D.C.
Mr. Sam Feola, Director, Logistics
Mr. Pat Haggerty, Project Manager, South Pole Station Modernization
Mr. Ronald G. Koger, Project Director
Mr. John Lomax, Procurement
Mr. Craig Martin, Director, Engineering
Ms. Janet Phillips, Area Manager, Palmer Station
Mr. Chris Rhone, Director, Information Systems
Mr. Chris Shepherd, Science Support
Mr. Blair Thueson, Budget and Planning Processes
Mr. Ian Diamond, General Manager, Engineering, Air New Zealand
Ms. Kim Fassbender, Program Coordination Specialist, NSF
Mr. Graeme Hills, Component Maintenance Manager, Air New Zealand
Mr. Richard Ison, Aircraft Maintenance Manager, Air New Zealand
Mr. Mike McIlroy, Supervisor, Clothing Distribution Center, ASA
Mr. Ian Matthews, Manager, Marketing, Air New Zealand
Mr. Brian Perry, Product Support Engineer, Air New Zealand
CDR John Stotz, USN, Commanding Officer, Naval Antarctic Support Unit
Mr. Art Brown, Manager, Specialized Services Support, NSF
Mr. Earl Ferguson, Supervisor, Inventory Management, ASA
Captain Jeffrey Garrett, U.S. Coast Guard, Commanding Officer, USCGC Polar Sea
Dr. Jack Gibbons, Science Advisor to the President
Mr. Bill Haals, Operations Manager, ASA
Mr. John Hatcher, Manager, Waste Management, ASA
Mr. Joe Heil, Supervisor, Field Operations Communication Center, ASA
Dr. Julie Palais, Glaciology Program Manager, National Science Foundation
Mr. Mitch Perry, Manager, Black Island Communications Ground Station
Mr. Tom Quinn, Fixed Wing Coordinator, ASA
Mr. Jim Raml, Supervisor, Marble Point
Mr. Mark Reese, Office of Aircraft Services, Department of the Interior
CDR Bill Stedman, USN, Commanding Officer, Antarctic Development Squadron, Six (VXE-6)
Mr. Brian Stone, Manager, Terminal Operations, ASA
Dr. Mario Zuchelli, Director, Italian Antarctic Program
Dr. Pat Bryan, Biochemist, Florida Institute of Technology
Mr. Rudy Dichtl, Manager, Science Technical Services, ASA
Dr. Nelia Dunbar, Principal Investigator, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Dr. Diana Freckman, Principal Investigator, Desert Research Institute
Mr. Glenn Grant, Science Technician, ASA
Dr. Robert Holmes, University of Wisconsin
Mr. Larry Hothem, U.S. Geological Survey
Mr. Bjorn Johns, UNAVCO (precision Global Positioning Systems service)
Dr. Steve Kottmeier, Manager, Laboratory Sciences, ASA
Dr. Bill McIntosh, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology
Mr. Dave Mikesell, Analytical Chemist, ASA
Mr. Robbie Score, Sr. Assistant Supervisor, Laboratory Operations, ASA
Mr. Chris Shepherd, Director Science Support, ASA
Mr. Dom Tedeschi, Teacher (Antarctic education and research integration)
Mr. Mike Varney, Facilities Engineer, ASA
Ms. Kathy Young, Berg Field Center, ASA
Mr. Tom Pennel, Allied Signal
Ms. Robin Abbott, Helicopter Coordinator, ASA
Mr. Hardy Foster, Allied Signal
Mr. Jack Hawkins, Project Manager, Petroleum Helicopters, Inc. (PHI)
Mr. Brooks Montgomery, Field Safety Training, ASA
Mr. Ron Nugent, Mechanical Engineering Center, ASA
Ms. Jill Vereyken, Field Services Manager, ASA
Dry Valleys/Lake Hoare
Ms. Paula Adkins, Long Term Ecological Research, ASA
Dr. Diana Freckman, Principal Investigator, Desert Research Institute
Dr. Beth Hartman, Department of Earth Sciences, Boston University
Dr. Dave Marchant, Principal Investigator, Boston University
Dr. Diane McKnight, Desert Research Institute
Dr. Sarah Mills, Department of Earth Sciences, Boston University
Dr. Sophie Webb, H.T. Harvey and Associates
Dr. Stephanie Zasor, H.T. Harvey and Associates
Mr. Julian Tangaere, Manager
Mr. Lester Bracey, Supervisor, Food Service
Mr. Chris Cleavelin, Science Technician, ASA
Ms. Sandra Collins, Science Technician, ASA
Mr. Neil Conant, Communications Operator
Dr. Hugh Cowan, Station Physician
Mr. David Fischer, Area Manager, ASA
Ms. B.K. Grant, Acting Information Systems Supervisor, ASA
Mr. Drew Hampton, Heavy Equipment Mechanic
Dr. Doyal Harper, Principal Investigator, Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica
Ms. Shawndra Holmberg, Safety, Environment, and Health Coordinator
Ms. Gloria Hutchings, Manager, Station Stores, ASA
Mr. Martin Lewis, Operations Manager, ASA
Ms. Diana Logan, Supervisor, Logistics, ASA
Mr. Jeff Lutz, Senior Meteorologist, ASA
Mr. Don Neff, Science Coordinator, ASA
Dr. Robert Pernic, Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica
Mr. Chris Rock, Facilities Engineer, ASA
Dr. Rolf Sinclair, NSF Representative
Ms. Judy Smith, Inventory Control Specialist
Dr. Antony Stark, Principal Investigator, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
Dr. Wayne Sukow, NSF Representative
Mr. Paul Sullivan, Science Technician, ASA
Mr. Carlton Walker, Facilities, Maintenance and Construction Supervisor, ASA
Ms. Paula Walker, Senior Administrative
Coordinator, ASA
Dr. Sridhar Anandakrishnan, Pennsylvania State University
Dr. T. Bania-Bu, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
Dr. Paul Berkman, Byrd Polar Research Center, Ohio State University
Mr. Mark Boland, NOAA
Dr. William Cassidy, University of Pittsburgh
Mr. Paul J. Charpentier, University of Illinois
Mr. Mike Courtemanche, ASA
Dr. Ralph Harvey, Principal Investigator, Case Western Reserve University
Dr. Peter Holden, University of California, Davis
Dr. Anita Jones, Deputy Director of Defense for Research and Engineering, DoD
Dr. Barclay Kamb, Principal Investigator, California Institute of Technology
Dr. Deneb Karentz, University of San Francisco
Dr. Albrecht Karle, University of Wisconsin
Mr. Tim Makovicka, Principal Investigator, University of Nebraska
Dr. Carol Raymond, Principal Investigator, Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Dr. Raymond Smith, Principal Investigator, University of California, Santa Barbara
Dr. Donald Voigt, Pennsylvania State University
Dr. Ed Waddington, Principal Investigator, University of Washington
Dr. Wes Weather, University of California, Davis
signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for management of Antarctica. Administration is carried out through consultative member meetings - the 21st Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was in the Hague, Netherlands, in May 1996.
Currently, there are 43 treaty member nations: 26 consultative and 17 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 19 nonclaimant nations. The U.S. and some other nations that have made no claims have reserved the right to do so. The U.S. does not recognize the claims of others.
The year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay (1985), the U.S., and Russia. Claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the U. K.
Acceding (nonvoting) members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Bulgaria (1978), Canada (1988), Colombia (1988), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1996), and Ukraine (1992).
Other significant international agreements under the Antarctic Treaty system:
Under the Antarctic Treaty, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals entered into force in 1978. This convention prohibits the taking of some species and limits the take of others.
In 1994 the International Whaling Commission designated the southern ocean south of 40°S (south of 60°S between 50°W and 130°W) as a whale sanctuary. Commercial whaling is not allowed in the sanctuary.
The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is an international agreement to assure that (1) any harvesting or associated activities in Antarctic waters will be done in such a way that the size of the harvested species will not fall below levels that will assure stable recruitment and (2) the ecological relationships among harvested, dependent, and related populations will be maintained. The USA is a ratifying nation. Title III of Public Law 98-623 (the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Convention Act of 198416 USC 2431 et seq.) provides the legislative authority necessary to implement the convention in the USA. The law makes it unlawful to harvest marine species in violation of the convention, and it provides for certain other activities. Marine biologists, other marine scientists, and ship operators should be familiar with this law.
The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty and its five annexes respond to the need for a comprehensive system to protect the Antarctic environment. The parties to the Antarctic Treaty held a special consultative meeting to discuss and explore proposals for protection of the Antarctic environment and its dependent and associated ecosystems. This meeting consisted of several sessions held over a year. At the final session in Madrid, Spain, in October 1991, representatives of the Antarctic Treaty nations signed the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, including annexes I-IV, which cover environmental impact assessment, conservation, waste disposal and management, and prevention of marine pollution. Annex V (special area protection and management) was adopted by the 16th Antarctic Treaty consultative meeting, also held in October 1991. In the Protocol, the representatives agree to means for providing comprehensive protection of Antarctica's environment and dependent and associated ecosystems in order to preserve the region as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science. The protocol bans mining (see section 5.2).
The protocol will enter into force when all the signatory nations deposit their instruments of ratification. U.S. PL-104-227, the "Antarctic Science, Tourism, and Conservation Act of 1996," signed 2 October 1996 by the President, implements the provisions of the Protocol. The Senate had already given its advice and consent to ratification of the Protocol. Deposit of the U.S. ratification with the Antarctic Treaty System awaits completion of regulations pursuant to PL-104-227.
To the extent possible, the U.S. complies with the Protocol. The U.S. legislation when enacted may contain provisions different from those in the Protocol.
Americans in Antarctica 1775-1948, by Kenneth J. Bertrand, American Geographical Society, 1971
Antarctica: Authentic Accounts of Life and Exploration in the World's Highest, Driest, Windiest, Coldest, and Most Remote Continent, edited by Charles Neider, Random House, 1972
Antarctic Conquest: The Great Explorers in Their Own Words, edited by Walker Chapman, Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1965
Antarctic Research: Program Announcement and Proposal Guide (NSF 96-93), National Science Foundation, April 1996
Cold. The Record of an Antarctic Sledge Journey, by L. M. Gould, Brewer, Warren, and Putnam, 1931
Endurance, Shackleton's Incredible Voyage, by Alfred Lansing, McGraw Hill, 1959
Facts About the U.S. Antarctic Program (NSF 92-134), National Science Foundation, October 1994
90 Degrees South: The Story of the American South Pole Conquest, by Paul A. Siple, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1959
United States Antarctic Program, Committee on Fundamental Science, National Science and Technology Council, April 1996
Poles Apart: Parallel Visions of the Arctic and Antarctic, text and photographs by Galen Rowell, University of California Press, 1995
South Light: A Journey to the Last Continent, by Michael Parfit, Macmillan, 1985
The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica, by Stephen J. Pyne, University of Iowa Press, 1986
The Worst Journey in the World, by Apsley Cherry-Garrard, first published 1922
AESOPS - Antarctic Environment and Southern Ocean Process Study
AMANDA - Antarctic Muon and Neutrino Detector Array
ANG - Air National Guard
ASA - Antarctic Support Associates, Inc.
ATC - Air traffic control
CARA - Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica
CCAMLR - Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
CFCs - Chlorinated fluorocarbons
CRAMRA - Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resources Activities
DOD - Department of Defense
DU - Dobson units
FTE - Full-time-equivalent
FY - Fiscal year (begins 1 October in U.S. Government)
IGY - International Geophysical Year, 1957-1958
JGOFS - Joint Global Ocean Flux Study
LC-130 - Ski-equipped C-130 (four-engine transport aircraft)
LEO - Low Earth orbit
LTER - Long term ecological research
M - Million
NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NOAA - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NSC - National Security Council
NSF - National Science Foundation
NSFA - Naval Support Force Antarctica
NSTC - National Science and Technology Council
NYANG - New York Air National Guard
OPP - Office of Polar Programs, NSF
PHI - Petroleum Helicopters Inc.
R/V - Research vessel
SEH - Safety, environmental protection, and health
TOMS - Total ozone mapping spectrometer
USAF - United States Air Force
USAP - U.S. Antarctic Program
USARP - U. S. Antarctic Research Program (Component of USAP)
USCG - United States Coast Guard
USGS - United States Geological Survey
USNS - United States Naval Ship
VXE-6 - Antarctic Development Squadron 6, U.S. Navy
WAIS - West Antarctic Ice Sheet