• Acknowledgments
• List of Figures
• List of Text Tables
• Highlights
  • Standards and Systemic Reform
  • Observations
    • Achievement Trends
    • Curriculum Trends
    • Teachers
    • Postsecondary Trends
• Chapter 1
  • Introduction
  • The Context for this Report
    • Policy
      • Systemic Reform
      • Standards
      • Assessment
    • Federal Funding
    • Demographics
      • Elementary and Secondary
      • Postsecondary
  • The Organization of the Report
  • Endnotes
  • Chapter 1 References

N AT I O N A L S C I E N C E F O U N D AT I O N

REC Indicators Series National Science Foundation

Chapter 1 Larry E. Suter, National Science Foundation, and Joy Frechtling, Westat
Chapter 2 Daniel C. Humphrey, Amy L. Lewis, Marjorie E. Wechsler, and Judith
Powell of SRI International
Chapter 3 Iris Weiss, Horizon Research, Inc.; Francis Lawrenz, University of
Minnesota; and Mary L. Queitzsch, Northwest Regional Educational
Laboratory (former AERA fellow)
Chapter 4 James S. Dietz, National Science Foundation
Chapter 5 Larry E. Suter, National Science Foundation

Reviews of the report were provided by Mary J. Golladay, Jennifer Bond, and Myles
Boylan. Reviewers outside NSF included Barbara Schneider, University of Chicago; Lyle
Jones, University of North Carolina; Rolf Blank, Council of Chief State School Officers;
Mary M. Lindquist, Columbus College; Alan Fechter, National Research Council (retired);
and Lois Peak, National Center for Education Statistics.
Special tabulations for the report were provided by Rolf Blank, Council of Chief State
School Officers; Iris Weiss, Horizon Research, Inc.; Karen Brinker, National Data Resource
Center; Rita Kirshstein, Pelavin Research Institute; Thomas Hoffer, National Opinion
Research Center; and Stephen Leeds, Department of Commerce. The National Center for
Education Statistics, of the Department of Education, provided tabulations and survey
reports on student assessment, teacher characteristics, and faculty.

Acknowledgments

Indicators of
Science and Mathematics Education 1995

Figure 1-2. Budget obligations of 11 Federal agencies for science and mathematics
education: 1994..........................................................................................................4

Figure 1-3. Number and percent of students enrolled in grades 1– 12, by race or ethnic
origin: 1970 to 1993...................................................................................................5

Figure 1-4. Number of children ages 5– 17 speaking a language other than English at
home: 1980 and 1990 ................................................................................................5

Figure 1-5. Education level of parents of elementary or secondary school students, by
student race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993..............................................................6

Figure 1-6. Percent of white, black, and Hispanic families
with only one parent present, by race or ethnic origin: 1970 to 1993 .....................6

Figure 1-7. Percent of white and black children ages 6– 17 below the poverty level: 1970
to 1993 .......................................................................................................................7

Figure 1-8. Race or ethnic origin of students enrolled in college: 1970 to 1993...............7

Chapter 2— Achievement in Science and Mathematics
Figure 2-1. NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students at or
above anchor point 250 and age: 1977 to 1992......................................................14

Figure 2-2. NAEP science and mathematics proficiency, by percent of students at or
above selected anchor points, age, and race or ethnic origin: 1977 to 1992 .........15

Figure 2-3. NELS mathematics proficiency levels in eighth grade, by race or ethnic
origin and socioeconomic status (SES): 1988 .........................................................16

Figure 2-4. NAEP mean science score percentile distributions: 1977 to 1992................17
Figure 2-5. NAEP mean mathematics score percentile distributions: 1978 to 1992 .......18
Figure 2-6. Percent of age 9 students answering NAEP mathematics questions correctly,
by race or ethnic origin: 1978 and 1992 .................................................................19

Figure 2-7. Percent of age 13 students answering NAEP mathematics questions
correctly, by race or ethnic origin: 1978 and 1992 .................................................19

Figure 2-8. Average percent of NAEP mathematics questions answered correctly, by type
of question, race or ethnic origin, and age: 1992 ....................................................20

Figure 2-9. 18-year-old population compared with number of college preparation test
takers: 1987 and 1993 ..............................................................................................21

Figure 2-10. Percent of students earning each standard score in science reasoning on the
ACT, by race or ethnic origin: 1993 .......................................................................22

Figure 2-11. Distribution of SAT mathematics scores, by race or ethnic origin: 1987 and
1993..........................................................................................................................22

List of Figures

Figure 2-13. Distribution of SAT mathematics scores, by sex: 1993................................24
Figure 2-14. Mean scores of 13-year-old public school white students
on NAEP mathematics test: 1992 ...........................................................................25

Figure 2-15. Mean scores of 13-year-old public school Hispanic students
on NAEP mathematics test: 1992 ...........................................................................25

Figure 2-16. Mean scores of 13-year-old public school black students
on NAEP mathematics test: 1992 ...........................................................................25

Figure 2-17. IAEP science scores for selected countries at 5th percentile, mean, and
95th percentile, by age: 1991...................................................................................26

Figure 2-18. IAEP mathematics scores for selected countries at 5th percentile, mean,
and 95th percentile, by age: 1991............................................................................27

Figure 2-19. Mathematics proficiency scores for 13-year-olds in countries and public
school eighth-grade students in U.S. states: 1991 or 1992 .....................................28

Chapter 3— The Elementary and Secondary Learning Environment
Figure 3-1. Percent of states imposing graduation requirements in mathematics:
1974 to 1992 ............................................................................................................37

Figure 3-2. Average number of minutes per day spent teaching each subject
to self-contained classes, by grade range: 1977 to 1993..........................................38

Figure 3-3. Mean number of credits earned by high school graduates in each subject
field: 1982 to 1992 ...................................................................................................38

Figure 3-4. Percent of high school graduates earning credits in science
and mathematics courses, by subject and sex: 1982 to 1992 ..................................39

Figure 3-5. Percent of high school graduates earning credits in science courses,
by race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992 ....................................................................40

Figure 3-6. Percent of high school graduates earning credits in mathematics courses,
by race or ethnic origin: 1982 to 1992 ....................................................................40

Figure 3-7. Percent of high school science and mathematics classes grouped by ability,
according to percent minority in class: 1993 ..........................................................42

Figure 3-8. Ability composition of high school science and mathematics classes:
1986 and 1993..........................................................................................................42

Figure 3-9. Percent of science and mathematics teachers who are female,
by grade range: 1977 to 1993...................................................................................43

Figure 3-10. Percent of public high school science teachers who are female,
by state: 1991 ...........................................................................................................44

Figure 3-11. Percent of public high school mathematics teachers who are female,
by state: 1991 ...........................................................................................................44

by grade range: 1993 ................................................................................................45 Figure 3-13. Percent of science and mathematics teachers with master’s degrees, by years of teaching experience and by grade range: 1993 .....................................45 V I I N D I C AT O R S O F S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S E D U C AT I O N 1 9 9 5

Figure 3-15. Percent of teachers who say they enjoy teaching subject,
by subject and grade range: 1986 and 1993.............................................................47

Figure 3-16. Percent of mathematics teachers who are “well aware”
of the NCTM standards documents, by grade range: 1993.....................................48

Figure 3-17. Percent of mathematics teachers agreeing that virtually all students can
learn to think scientifically or mathematically, by subject and grade range: 1993...48

Figure 3-18. Percent of science and mathematics teachers agreeing that students
learn science or mathematics best in classes with students of similar abilities,
by subject and grade range: 1993.............................................................................49

Figure 3-19. Percent of mathematics teachers agreeing
with statements about reform, by grade range: 1993 ..............................................49

Figure 3-20. Percent of science and mathematics classes using hands-on activities
in most recent lesson, by subject and grade range: 1977 to 1993...........................50

Figure 3-21. Percent of science and mathematics teachers with undergraduate
or graduate majors in science or mathematics fields, by grade range: 1993 ...........51

Figure 3-22. Total number of semesters of college science coursework completed
by science teachers, by grade range: 1993 ...............................................................51

Figure 3-23. Percent of science classes taught by teachers with varying levels of
preparation in science, by discipline: 1993 .............................................................52

Figure 3-24. Percent of science teachers teaching courses in one, two, or three or more
science subjects, by type of community: 1993.........................................................52

Figure 3-25. Percent of elementary school mathematics teachers with college
coursework in each area: 1993.................................................................................53

Figure 3-26. Percent of high school mathematics teachers completing college courses in
mathematics, by teaching assignment: 1993 ...........................................................54

Figure 3-27. Percent of grades 7– 12 science and mathematics classes taught
by teachers with undergraduate or graduate major in the field,
by percent of minority students in class: 1993 ........................................................55

Figure 3-28. Percent of self-contained elementary teachers feeling
very well qualified to teach each subject: 1977 to 1993 .........................................55

Figure 3-29. Percent of high school mathematics teachers considering themselves well
qualified to teach each mathematics topic, by teaching assignment: 1993............56

Figure 3-30. Percent of mathematics teachers considering themselves
well prepared for mathematics teaching tasks, by grade range: 1993 .....................56

Figure 3-31. Percent of science teachers considering themselves well prepared for
science teaching tasks, by grade range: 1993 ..........................................................57

Figure 3-32. Percent of teachers considering themselves “master teachers” of their
subject, by subject and grade range: 1986 and 1993 ...............................................57

Figure 3-33. Total amount of time mathematics teachers spent on in-service education
in mathematics during previous 12 months: 1986 and 1993..................................58

L I S T O F F I G U R E S V I I

Figure 3-35. Average percent of science and mathematics class time
spent on different types of activity, by grade range: 1993.......................................59

Figure 3-36. Percent of mathematics classes never working
on 1-week-long projects at home or in class, by grade range: 1993 .......................60

Figure 3-37. Percent of science classes about which teachers report various types of
activity are important in determining student grades, by grade range: 1993 .........62

Figure 3-38. Percent of test items, by type of test, use of conceptual knowledge,
and levels of thinking: 1992 ....................................................................................63

Figure 3-39. Percent of classes for which teachers consider the quality of their science
and mathematics textbooks as good, by grade range: 1993 ....................................64

Figure 3-40. Percent of high school science classes for which teachers report various
types of equipment are needed but not available, by percent minority in class:
1993..........................................................................................................................65

Figure 3-41. Mean percent of schools with computers that use
16+ bit computers (80286 and higher processors): 1989 and 1992........................66

Figure 3-42. Percent of students reporting any use of computers in mathematics or
science classes during the academic year, by race or ethnic origin: 1992...............66

Figure 3-43. Percent of external network use for schools that use external networks,
by type of external network used within school level: 1992...................................67

Figure 3-44. Average percentage of mathematics problems correct on test items
requiring the use of a calculator, ages 9, 13, and 17: 1978 to 1992 ........................68

Chapter 4— Postsecondary Education
Figure 4-1. A map of the science and technology fields used in this chapter..................75
Figure 4-2. Percent of high school sophomores aspiring to various
levels of education, by sex: 1980 and 1990 .............................................................75

Figure 4-3. Number and percent of recent high school graduates and number who
enrolled in college: 1972 to 1992 ............................................................................76

Figure 4-4. Total fall education enrollment, by attendance status and
percent of students who are 21 years old and younger: 1970 to 1991 ....................77

Figure 4-5. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions, by sex: 1970 to 1998
(projected)................................................................................................................77

Figure 4-6. Total fall enrollment in postsecondary institutions,
by race or ethnic origin: 1976 to 1991 ....................................................................78

Figure 4-7. Percent of 1991 bachelor’s degree recipients who took
one or more courses in selected science and engineering course fields
in which they did not major, by course field and sex: 1994 ...................................79

Figure 4-8. Percent of 1991 bachelor’s degree recipients who graduated
with a 3.0 GPA or higher, by field and sex: 1991 ...................................................79

Figure 4-9. Percent of population that is black, by population group: 1990....................80
Figure 4-10. Percent of population that is female, by population group: 1990................80

V I I I I N D I C AT O R S O F S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S E D U C AT I O N 1 9 9 5

Figure 4-12. Percent of faculty agreeing with statements that undergraduates
in their country are adequately prepared in select skills, by type of skill
and country: 1992 ....................................................................................................81

Figure 4-13. Percent of 1980 high school sophomores identifying natural science and
engineering as intended or actual field of study at various points in the
educational system, by sex: 1980 to 1986................................................................83

Figure 4-14. Percent of 1987 first-year undergraduate students
in 4-year institutions who stayed in or switched to other
(declared or intended) majors by 1991, by field of major: 1991.............................84

Figure 4-15. Primary source of support of science and engineering doctorate recipients,
by residency status and race or ethnic origin of U.S. citizens: 1992 ......................85

Figure 4-16. First university natural science and engineering degrees awarded
as a percent of the 22-year-old population, by sex and country:
most current year (1989 to 1992)............................................................................86

Figure 4-17. Science and engineering degrees awarded, by degree level: 1971 to 1991.....87
Figure 4-18. Science and engineering degrees awarded as a percent of degrees awarded
in all fields, by degree level: 1971 to 1991 ..............................................................87

Figure 4-19. Science and engineering degrees awarded per hundred U.S. population, by
degree level and sex: 1971 to 1991..........................................................................88

Figure 4-20. Number of science and engineering bachelor’s degrees awarded
to students in underrepresented racial and ethnic groups: 1977 to 1991...............88

Figure 4-21. Ten colleges and universities that award the highest number of bachelor’s
degrees in engineering to blacks: 1993....................................................................89

Figure 4-22. Ten colleges and universities that award the highest number of bachelor’s
degrees in engineering to Hispanics: 1993 ..............................................................89

Figure 4-23. Science and engineering doctorates awarded to blacks, Hispanics, and
Native Americans, by sex: 1982 to 1992 ................................................................90

Figure 4-24. Number of institutions awarding science and engineering doctorates, by
race or ethnic origin of recipient: 1992...................................................................91

Figure 4-25. Science and engineering doctorates awarded, by citizenship of recipient:
1972 to 1992 ............................................................................................................91

Figure 4-26. Proportional distribution of science and engineering doctorates
awarded, by citizenship of recipient: 1972 to 1992.................................................91

Figure 4-27. Total number of engineering technology degrees awarded,
by degree level: 1975 to 1991 ..................................................................................92

Figure 4-28. Institutions of higher education, by institutional type: 1994 ......................93
Figure 4-29. Percent of full-time faculty who are black, by field:
Fall 1987 and Fall 1992............................................................................................93

Figure 4-30. Percent of full-time instructional faculty who are female,
by field: Fall 1987 and Fall 1992 .............................................................................93

Figure 4-32. Percent of engineering departments (electrical, mechanical,
and civil only) requiring or offering courses in communications to
faculty and graduate students, by size of department: 1992 ....................................94

Figure 4-33. Percent of classes that use a laboratory or problem-solving format,
by type of institution and field of faculty: Fall 1992 ...............................................95

Figure 4-34. Percent of mathematics departments offering research opportunities to
undergraduate mathematics majors, by type of project and institution: 1990 .......96

Figure 4-35. Percent of college and university equipment and
instrumentation at doctorate-granting institutions used
for instruction or research: 1988 to 1989 ................................................................97

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Text table 3-2. Percent of high school graduates completing a three-course sequence in
science or mathematics during grades 9– 12, by race or ethnic origin: 1990..........41

Text table 3-3. Average age of science and mathematics teachers, by grade range: 1986
and 1993...................................................................................................................45

Text table 3-4. NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students, by frequency of
homework performed: 1978 to 1992........................................................................46

Text table 3-5. Percent of teachers with majors and minors in science or mathematics
and science or mathematics education, by grade range: 1993 ................................51

Text table 3-6. NAEP science proficiency for students participating in classroom science
activities at age 9: 1977 to 1992..............................................................................60

Text table 3-7. States with alternative assessments in science and mathematics: Fall
1991 and Fall 1993...................................................................................................61

Text table 3-8. NAEP mathematics proficiency of 17-year-old students, by frequency of
mathematics tests taken: 1978 to 1992 ...................................................................62

Text table 3-9. Percent of science and mathematics teachers reporting classroom
preparation for mandated standardized tests, by minority presence: 1992 .............64

Text table 3-10. Percent of science and mathematics teachers indicating that each
factor is a serious problem for science and mathematics teaching, by grade range:
1977 to 1993 ............................................................................................................65

Text table 3-11. Percent of science and mathematics classes reporting computer use:
1993..........................................................................................................................66

Text table 3-12. Percent of U.S. students ever taught a computer skill or programming
course, by race within grade level: 1992..................................................................67

Text table 3-13. Percent of mathematics classes where teachers report use of various
types of calculator, by grade range: 1993.................................................................68

Text table 4-1. Percent of students identifying natural science or engineering as
intended or actual field of study at various points in education system, by sex:
1980 to 1986 ............................................................................................................82

Text table 4-2. Percent of students whose actual or intended field of study is natural
sciences or engineering, by education level and sex: 1980 to 1986 .......................84

List of Text Tables

data about science and mathematics education programs
gathered by Federal agencies, such as the National
Center for Education Statistics. NSF analyzes statistical
information from outside sources, as well, and develops
appropriate methods for evaluating the effectiveness of
programs and initiatives. Creation of a biennial science
and mathematics education indicator report,1 therefore,
builds on the agency’s leadership as compiler, reviewer,
and interpreter of complex data.
While the 1992 Indicators report primarily described
science- and mathematics-education-related trends from
1970 to 1990, this latest document focuses, wherever possible,
on information regarding student proficiency, curricula,
learning environments, demographics, and so
forth, that has been gathered through 1993. Therefore,
this report serves as an update on the ways in which the
important issues in science and mathematics education,
analyzed in the 1992 edition, continue to change.
A review of major reports recommending an indicator
system for monitoring science and mathematics education
is presented in the Postscript of this report. That section
also recommends new, future directions for collection
and presentation of such indicators.
Major sources of the latest data include such existing
national surveys as the National Assessment of
Educational Progress (NAEP), the National Education
Longitudinal Study of 1988, the National Survey of
Science and Mathematics Education, and High School
and Beyond. The main source for international comparisons
is the International Assessment of Educational
Progress. In some cases, the authors have conducted secondary
analyses of the existing data, but no new data
have been collected by NSF for this report.
A full understanding of the data presented here
requires some familiarity with the precepts of systemic
reform in science and mathematics education and the
standards upon which the concept is based. It is largely
within this context that the subjects of the report— stu-

dent achievement, the competency of teachers, the
sophistication of the learning environment, and others—
have been selected.

Standards and Systemic Reform
Over the past decade, science and mathematics education
standards, which provide an explicit set of expectations
for teaching and learning, have been articulated by
a number of prestigious organizations, such as the
National Council for Teachers of Mathematics, the
National Research Council, the National Science
Teachers Association, and the American Association for
the Advancement of Science. While differing in details,
the standards are consistent in providing guidelines for
instruction, calling for improvement in teacher qualifications
and the learning environment, and setting levels of
expectation for student achievement. The standards reinforce
the notion that the pursuit of excellence must be
open to all students, regardless of their sex, their race, or
the community in which they live.
The standards have, in turn, yielded a widely endorsed
set of specific goals, such as the following:
u All students should be expected to attain a high level

of scientific and mathematical competency.
u Students should learn science and mathematics as

active processes focused on a limited number of
concepts.
u Curricula should stress understanding, reasoning, and

problem solving rather than memorization of facts,
terminology, and algorithms.
u Teachers should engage students in meaningful

activities that regularly and effectively employ calculators,
computers, and other tools in the course of
instruction.
u Teachers need both a deep understanding of subject

matter and the opportunity to learn to teach in a
manner that reflects research on how students learn.
Meeting the standards and goals of excellence and
equity requires a broadly based, coherent, systematic
approach. NSF and the Department of Education have

H I G H L I G H T S X I I I
Highlights

—————
1 As specified in the Senate 1991 Appropriations Bill (HR 5158), this report is a congressionally mandated one:

“… In addition, the Committee expects the [National Science] Foundation to establish a biennial science and mathematics education indicator
report, distinct from the science and engineering indicator report, that evaluates the progress of the United States in improving the science and mathematics
capability of its students, and the effectiveness of all Federal and State education programs as part of this process.”

Achievement Trends
u Several demographic changes have taken place during
the past 2 decades that could affect student achievement.
For example, the proportion of all parents who
had received at least some college education increased
from 25 percent in 1970 to 49 percent in 1993. (See
figure 1-5.) The trend held for white, black, and
Hispanic parents, although in 1993, parents of
Hispanic students still had less education than parents

of white or black students. Additionally, the proportion
of families with children younger than age 18 living
with only one parent increased from only 13 percent
in 1970 to 30 percent by 1993. (See figure 1-6.)
At the same time, students were more likely to be living
below the poverty level; the proportion of students
between 6 and 17 years old living in poverty
rose from 14 percent in 1970 to 20 percent in 1993.
(See figure 1-7.)
u Student achievement in both science and mathematics,

as measured by the NAEP trends, has increased
since 1977. Although increases do not occur every
year, they are clearly observable for students of every
race and ethnic origin and at every age. Increases
occurred in the percentage of students who attained
at least a basic level of knowledge in science and
mathematics, especially among blacks and Hispanics
and those at the lowest achievement levels. For
example, the percentage of 13-year-old black students
who attained a proficiency score of 250 or more
increased from 29 percent in 1978 to 51 percent in
1992— a 22-percentage-point increase in students
who perform at acceptable levels of mathematics in
the eighth grade.
u These gains have not eliminated the gaps between

males and females. For example, in 1977, the largest
gap between the percentage of males and the percentage
of females scoring at selected NAEP anchor
points was in science at age 17. The gap between the
achievement of males and females had decreased
from 14 percentage points in 1977 to 9 in 1992. (See
figure 2-12.)
u Sharp differences in student mathematics performance

among states in the United States match differences
among countries. A comparison of international
and state proficiencies shows, for example,
that eighth-grade performance in the highest ranking
states (Iowa, North Dakota, and Minnesota) was the
same as in the top-performing countries (Taiwan,
Korea, and the former Soviet Union), while performance
in the lowest performing states was about the
same as in the lowest performing countries. (See figure
2-19.)
u Overall, students in the Midwest had the highest

NAEP mathematics scores, and students in the
Southeast had the lowest scores. (See figure 2-19.)

Curriculum Trends
u High schools appear to be placing more emphasis on
science and mathematics education. Whereas 20 percent
of states required high school students to complete
2 or more years of mathematics in 1974, almost

X I V I N D I C AT O R S O F S C I E N C E A N D M AT H E M AT I C S E D U C AT I O N 1 9 9 5

received instruction in science and mathematics in
the past 10 years. (See figures 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6.)
Also, elementary students spent more time in class
studying science and mathematics. (See figure 3-2.)
u Between 1982 and 1992, female and male high

school graduates had earned credit in all science and
mathematics courses at about the same rate, except
in physics, where rates for males significantly exceeded
those for females. (See figure 3-4.)
u Substantial differences in coursetaking existed among

students in various racial and ethnic groups. (See figures
3-5 and 3-6.) For example, while about the same
proportion of white, black, and Hispanic high school
graduates had earned credits in biology and introductory
algebra in 1992, a significantly higher proportion
of white graduates had completed courses in chemistry,
physics, geometry, advanced algebra, and
trigonometry.
u Ability grouping— assigning students to specific classes

such as honors or remedial courses— in secondary
science and mathematics classrooms has declined,
creating a more heterogeneous environment. (See
figure 3-8.) Whatever may have stimulated this
change, it is a move toward greater classroom equity,
since homogeneous classrooms may deprive lowachieving
students of exposure to demanding coursework
and the stimulation and encouragement to
achieve.

Teachers
u High school science and mathematics teachers are
likely to have completed their undergraduate training
with majors in their teaching fields, but few elementary
school teachers majored in science or mathematics.
(See figure 3-21.) Only about two-thirds of
teachers of grades 1 through 8 have completed at
least one college course in the biological, physical, or
earth sciences. (See figure 3-22.)
u Less than 30 percent of elementary school teachers

say they feel well qualified to teach life science, while
60 percent feel well qualified to teach mathematics
and close to 80 percent feel well qualified to teach
reading. (See figure 3-28.)
u Overall, many teachers are not yet following recommendations

for reforming classroom practice; for
example, teachers have not implemented early introduction
of algebraic concepts or alternative assess-

ments. However, science and mathematics teachers
are using more “hands-on” activities. The number of
classes using hands-on activities increased in each
grade level since 1986, following a decline since
1977. Still, fewer than 40 percent of junior high or
high school classes used hands-on activities in their
most recent lesson. (See figure 3-20.)

Postsecondary Trends
u As the value of postsecondary education has increased
across all sectors of the economy, the percentage of
high school students aspiring to obtain a bachelor’s or
higher degree has increased dramatically, regardless of
sex, race, or ethnic origin. (See figure 4-2.)
u During the 1980s, despite decreases in the population

of college-age youth, the number of bachelor’s degree
recipients increased markedly. The number of science
and engineering bachelor’s degree recipients also
increased, although not as notably. However, compared
with nations such as Japan, South Korea, and
Germany, the United States graduates significantly
fewer persons with first degrees in natural science
and engineering. (See figure 4-16.)
u Although interest in science and engineering careers

declines among students between 10th grade and college
graduation, a large portion of science and engineering
graduates actually enter their discipline during
the final years of college. (See figure 4-13.)
u Although 28 percent of male and 10 percent of

female high school seniors planned to major in one
of the science or engineering fields, by the time they
were college seniors, only 11 percent of males and 4
percent of females actually completed the major. (See
text table 4-1.)
u Between 1971 and 1991, increases in graduate

degrees awarded exceeded increases at the bachelor’s
level. By 1991, doctorates in science and engineering
constituted almost two-thirds of all doctorates granted
in the United States. During this period, universities
awarded 39 percent more science and engineering
master’s degrees and 23 percent more science and
engineering doctoral degrees. (See figure 4-18.)
u The number of females receiving bachelor’s degrees in

science and engineering has increased substantially in
the past few years; while the number of males graduating
in those fields has remained flat or declined. (See
appendix table 4-18.) Still, while females constituted
54 percent of all bachelor’s degree recipients in 1991,
they earned only 44 percent of all bachelor’s degrees
in science and engineering.
u The number of blacks and Hispanics graduating with

science or engineering bachelor’s degrees increased

H I G H L I G H T S X V

u Underrepresentation is evident in the number of
minorities and females who serve as science and
engineering faculty members. In 1992, blacks made
up about 5 percent of all higher education faculty,
but they made up only 3 percent of natural sciences
faculty and less than 3 percent in engineering. (See
figure 4-29.) Similarly, although the number of
women teaching in U.S. postsecondary institutions
increased markedly, females account for only about
15 percent of faculty in the natural sciences and only
about 6 percent of engineering faculty (see figure 4-
30); they make up about one-third of all higher education
faculty. n

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